Reactions to Industrialization and Capitalism

Factory work was monotonous and grueling, with long hours (e.g., 13 hours/day) and low wages.
Working classes started demanding reforms in response to their harsh living conditions.

Expansion of voting rights in Western nations led to mass-based political parties.
These parties aimed to represent the interests of workers.
Traditional parties (e.g., Conservatives and Liberals in Britain and France) incorporated social reforms into their platforms to appeal to the working class voters.

Working-class people formed social societies to provide insurance for sickness and organize social events to alleviate their bleak existence.

Between 1870 and 1914, most European governments enacted compulsory education laws, requiring children (ages 6-12) to attend school.
This prepared children for increasingly technical and specialized jobs during the Second Industrial Revolution.

Industrial cities were overcrowded and lacked proper sanitation, leading to unsanitary conditions.
Governments invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers to address these issues.

Labor unions are collectives of workers who united to protect their interests.
Initially illegal, labor unions gained power to negotiate for better wages, working hours, and conditions.
By the late 19th century, British labor unions had nearly 2 million members, while German and American unions had about 1 million each.
Some unions transformed into political parties advocating for reforms at the government level, such as the German Social Democratic Party which grew out of The General German Workers Association.
This party advocated for Marxist reform, aiming to shift from private to social ownership of the means of production.

Karl Marx observed the injustices faced by the working class in capitalist societies.
Marx argued that capitalism is inherently unstable due to creating sharp class divisions.
He predicted a violent revolution of the lower classes (proletariat) against the upper classes (bourgeoisie), leading to a classless society.
In 1848, Marx and Friedrich Engels published "The Communist Manifesto," outlining their concept of scientific socialism.
Marx believed history follows laws, with class struggle driving historical change.
The Industrial Revolution intensified the division between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers).
Marx said that the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie by revolution, resulting in a classless, socialist society.

China's rejection of British traders led to a trade deficit, which Britain addressed by importing illegal opium from British-controlled India.
Chinese authorities cracked down on the opium trade, leading to the Opium Wars.
British industrial power easily defeated China, resulting in unequal treaties that opened ports to foreign trade.
Other industrialized nations exploited China's weakness, carving it into spheres of influence for exclusive trading rights.
China initiated a self-strengthening movement in the 1860s and 1870s, attempting to modernize while preserving traditional culture.
However, resistance from Chinese conservatives hindered industrialization efforts.
China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War exposed the failure of its self-strengthening movement.

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was known as the "sick man of Europe" due to territorial losses and financial difficulties.
Ottoman authorities recognized the necessity of defensive industrialization.
The Tanzimat reforms were implemented, including building textile factories, adopting Western-style law codes and courts, and establishing secular education systems.
A new group, the Young Ottomans, emerged, advocating for a European-style parliament and constitutional government to limit the Sultan's power.
In 1876, the Sultan accepted a constitution and parliament, but later reverted to conservatism and rejected limitations on his power when a potential war with Russia was brewing.
Although Ottoman reforms were more effective than China's, the empire still collapsed in the early 20th century.