Bio

Hey. Hey. Who's in different? In case you were wondering, which might be wrong in you, which might, you might be worried about from Monday's conversation, because I don't care. Arsenal didn't eat wig on Monday, so... But the sun would never give up yesterday morning, obviously. In my little world, anyway. All right, so, we finished pHs. Anyone got any questions about PH? And how important it is to understand how the human body works, great. So, to move on and finish our trip through the very basic chemistry of how the human body works, we're gonna talk about the liking of life. Come on, hydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates, limits, and proteins is basically what we eat or should eat. We do that. We do a little bit more, that will be touching nutrition, when we talk about the digestive system. Nucleic acids, we need infer grocery repair, replication, reproduction, keeping us all healthy as well. Our body can make nucleotide soon. I think, make them out of carbohydrates lipid some protein. So the bichemistry in the human body, which do not panic, we're not going into. This is in the back of a class. needs to start to do that. So the whole adage of you, oh, what you eat is completely true. These molecules are involved in the chemical reactions that allow us to leave. Remember, we are just a walking bag of chemical reactions. You know, our personalities make us more than that, obviously, but that's what we are. Understanding this makes understanding how a cell works easier, and understanding how a cell works, that you understand how a human body actually works when you get onto the finger components. So let's talk about Carla favorites first. The term carbohydrate actually literally means hydrate of carbon. For every carbon, that sea down there, there's at least one molecule of water it's actually. So, that's what culba hoy bring with the 3 mints. Play drinks and caramel. Now, why do we use them? Structural support in most life forms, not so much in us. Well, carbohydrates can be used to structures poured in certain cells in our body, depending on what that cell does as part of a tissue or an organ. How our immune system works requires carbohydrates to be attached to ourselves, to our immune system, if they're healthy, not having it, suffering from any form of disease doesn't attack us. Sometimes it fails horribly. I'll throwidus is an example of our own immune system attack in certain parts of our body. It attacks our joints. There are certain other avenue response reaction. Allergic reactions, actually. Having hay fever, being allergic to cats or dogs or dust. That will be an example of our immune system going a bit alright. We'll be talking about that later when we do the immune system. But it does come down the carbohydrates. See, there was a point to this. I promise, lifids and protein modifications, membrane assembly, fertilization. How our new sister works, sell, sell recognitions, all comes to that to proteins and lipids as well. But energy, how we go about our daily business comes down to in the human body, the metabolism of carbohydrates during cell respiration. That's why it's important to understand what a carbohydrate is in the very basic sense. There's loads of different types. They're named after, unfortunately, they're named after the Greek or Latin term for how many carbons they are. So, for example, and they're not gonna queeze you all these bits, don't panic, you see that, go. What the hell? I thought I'd told you a bone, but I was in the other day. Five carbon sugars are called hexoses. Sorry, pentos is six carbon sugars are called hexoses. In the human body, we deal with five and six golden sugars. So, I'm gonna leave it at that, and bother talking about the rest of what's on this slide. Now, what I do want to talk to you about, disaccharide, olis, olisaccharide, polysaccharide. They're important. Dissect right, two sugars lived together, die two. That's it. That's it. I'm gonna show you some examples of very important disaccharides in the human body. And what they can, how important they are. Olligosaccharides is when you join more than two together, up to about six. After that point, you add a seventh on, and then something usually weirdly happens to a chain car. Hydrates when they get that long. They become insoluble and come out of solution. That's where you start getting polysaccharized. They can be storage or they can be structural. In the human body, they're mostly storage. Starch... is made up of glucose, which is a carbohydrate. It's how we store energy in our liver. If... And if everything's working directly, and if we are diabetic, and our insulin is working at the right levels, when we need a boost, insulin takes carbohydrates stored in our liver, output in the bloodstream, and our cells metabolize it. And that's how we keep going during the course of the day. So it does all come down the carbohydrants. So, we'll be talking about a storage polysepari in humans. I will mention a structural polyseparate, which is in our foodstuffs, and I'm going to warn you about this right now. There is a question on the first exam that'll say, give me an example of a structural polysaccharide. That'll be cellulose, which is part of our diet. A storage polysaccharide is starch. Also part of a diet, but we can metabolize that, and I'll come back for that in a minute. Now, this is the wee bit that confuses people, but it shouldn't. Once you've, um, stopped feeling dizzy with you at this, I'll explain it to you. Sugars are joined together by what's called an alpha or a beader link. The alpha one is ingredient. The beader is in red. Now, you may be looking at that, and then what on earth do all those numbers mean? Another way of drawing that sugar is this. So the numbers are the carbon, if you're looking at it. And if you're looking at it this way, to the right of that O, that oxygen. So you can see this, here's another way. There's your first carbon, second, third, fourth, fifth, and the sixth one is up there. They've got OH groups attach them. I'm not gonna draw them on this. If two sugars join together, and they join together by what's called a glycocidic link, which just means at one of these carbons, they can form onto another sugar here. That is the glycosidic link. Whether or not that link forms in a certain orientation denotes whether or not it's an alpha or a beta link. If the link falls on the opposite side of the oxygen, In other words, you're on a wage clip there. If this goes down, to attach to a sugar. So the opposite side. So here is the opposite side of this oxygen. Does that make sense? That is an alpha link. Now, I want to stress that, because alpha links, the human body can digest. The sugars that we take in and our foodstuffs, they consume, they're all alpha linked. A body can break them down. We have enzymes to that. The starch, there's an enzyme that breaks down the starchy foods in our mouths, in our saliva. That's where digestion actually starts. And it stops as it goes into the esophagus. Nothing happens there, it gets into his stomach, and then it's all acid and mechanical movement. Then if you're small and large intestine, we get back to breaking it down. But an alpha leap. Full, if that link is the opposite side of the altitude, or pink, or pointing down, is an alpha link. Does that make sense? If it goes up, if it's on the same side, so if that goes up, so the link forms here, That is a beader link. Be the link is up. Alpha link is down. Alpha's good. We can use that beetle links, we can't, I guess... I come back to that in a second. Actually... Let me tell you. Boy, that's kingdom. So, alpha links, we can digest those. Starch is an alphabetic glucose model. All joined together by our full links, our body even digestible. Beetle links not so much. In... In the animal kingdom, there are not many animals that can actually digest being the lakes. Certain animals have evolved different ways of doing it. And I don't want to put you off or horrify you if you have a pet rabbit, and you didn't know this about rabbits. But this is why you come to school to learn stuff. And don't get me wrong. I've got nothing wrong about keeping pet rabbits before we start this conversation. But rabbits have evolved to do this. They eat green stuff. They're cute when they do that, and they're cute JB. And then they poop, like everything else does. When that food comes through the digestive system first, because it's all plant based material, storage, polysaccharites, like cellulose, they can't really digest it. They can nibble away with it at it, and get small amounts of nutrients off it, but the rest of it actually just goes through the logistic tract. And when they form a pellet, the first time, it's soft and warm, and it smells a soothing way. And then the rabbit owes to turn around and eat that. Some of you would not think, God, some of you know this about rabbits. They eat their own poop because the 2nd time it goes through their digestive system, it's been actually chemically changed by its stomach. and its intestines by the pH, see, another link to what you learn on Friday, which changes the shape of that, which allow the body to dig metabolism to digest more of that polysaccharine before it comes to the second time, for which case there's less water in it, it smells differently, and it's rock hard, and they leave it alone. So they have evolved to get as much nutrients out of stuff, but being linked... Figured out, like, cows and camels are ruminates. They've got these three or five stomach chamber that just churns around grass and there's bacteria in air slowly breaking down. They can actually break down cellulose to get all the carbohydrates out over to make all the sugars out of it, and get as much energy as possible. We cannot digest real link things. cellular. Salads, for example, why are they called dietary salads? You do get a little bit of nutrients out of it. There's lots of venamins in there and trace metals that we actually need. But you don't digest about 85% of what you've just eaten. The rest of it just comes out of roughage. Because it's be the length. We can't digest it. We could. Anyone ever heard of Pete Marsh? It's not a faintly person. Pete Marsh is, um, a guy for the Bronze Age that they found in a peak in a peak bowl in Norway, and they called him Pete Marsh, which I think is hilarious. So he was a very well preserved guy from 16, 17,000 years ago. And, yeah, anthropologists thought this was defined in the century. It was. So after many years and investigation, they caught Pete Martin, a body scanner, and they went, oh, good, go on the back. Pete Marsh had, um, an enormous pay mix. He was waiting for me to finish that sentence. Sorry. So they said, what on earth is this? So they studied me, and they got permission to actually scrape out the inside of the appendix, and they found all these crystallized things, and they did more analysis, and found they were proteins. They put them to this big super computer, and the protein came back in different studies on digital symphony computers. It's a good dog, look at this. It's an enzyme that breaks down, bigger linked sugars, in its appendix. We used to have bigger appendances, appendixes. I can't say it, NC, too. Our appendixes were bigger. I'm going to leave it like that. But as our diet changed, we stop eating when we stop eating green stuff to an actrophile. It became a vegetable structure, didn't do anything. Now, all it does now is sit at the bottom of your colon, and if you're unlucky enough, sometimes fruit gets stuck in it, and it swells up, you've got to get taken out four bursts. It doesn't have a small role in your immune system, but a past man doesn't even do anything anymore. But it used to it. It used to have an anxiety that broke down people in sugar, but now we can't do that because our diet changed. Does that bit make sense with the alpha and beetle link, right? So alpha links, humans can digest it. As far as disaccharides go, now, by saccharides, like this, this is moltose, moltose is two molecules of glucose, and there you can see there. That's pointed downward. It is an alpha one form, like you said in week. Moltos is from Kenju. Now, moiden, moiden diceaccharides exist in nature anyway. Plants... Very same, lesson, plants, made by saccharized to transport tulers around, around the plant. Causes lesser monic trace, they're less reactive. In other words, the plant can transport them without the leaf, broken down by a game or way to where they want to go. So, as humans eat plants, we love consuming diisacroids, because we can break that down and get a load of energy out. Supros! Sorry, voltones, two molecules of glucose. You consume cane sugar, brown sugar, whatever you want to call it. You got two molecules that you, blues goes in there, great. The human metabolism is geared towards first digesting glucose. That's why putting it in they put it in all those energy drinks. Okay, put it in as suprose, which is different. They should put it in as maltos, but they don't because soup rose is cheaper. come back to that and say. So that's Moldoja. A disseguride, where we have exzymes in there, we can break down alpha link to make two molecules of glucose, anything that isn't used immediately, we can store enough liver, as starch or blankogen, as it's called sometimes. And everything is fine. Maltose is very good for you. However... what Americans and most of the world, actually, concern is super. All totes from cane sugar, this is from other kinds of sugar, like beet sugar, sugar beets, make cucrot, or table sugar. It is a dissect row, it's our fleet, you might say, big wolf. So what is why is this so bad? It's only got one molecule of glucose. The other one is a 5 carbon sugar, that called fructose. Now, fructose gets its name from being from fruit, mostly. It's fruit sugar. That's where fruit those comes from. Now, eating fruit is very good for you. In fact, if you consume the fructose in fruit, you can actually metabolize it to a surface, or it doesn't get metabolized at all, it just comes through you. But there's a quirk to the biochemistry of the human digestive system. If you consume a lot of sucromes, and that's the stuff that's in Hindi drinks, and everything else that we consume, talk about that, say. When the body breaks down that, it immediately uses the sucromes up, because you need energy to break down food. So that's suprome gets broken in half, the glucose gets used up. The fructose is there, too high, and abundance. way higher than in most fruit that you eat. So the body tacks and shouts, all of that fructose into fat metabolism. And that's why having excess table sugar or sucrose leads to the human body gaining weight. And the tragedy of all of that is we have put suprose in everything. And if you don't, why, I hear you crying or not. It's actually quite a good purservative. It increases the shelf-wise of stuff. You ever see, like, cans of Bolognese sauce or anything, or tea on bottles of Bolognese sauce? I tell you in a supermarket. Look at the lady. All ingredients labels list everything in the relative abundance of how much there is in there. So the first two ingredients are what mostly inmate. So if you look at, say, you are an uncle, Bolognese sauce, it might say tomorrow, and I bet the next one down there says suprose or it might say table sugar. Because we put sugary. It also makes the heaviest, it'll be said by a pound, you have to pay no money for it. It's a preservative, to a certain extent, it tastes better, but consuming too much of it can have an awfully bad effect on human health, because it gets stored as fat, if we're not, if we not, if we consume too much of it. And it is, honestly, good equity. sometimes in certain tinged stuff. You can actually put in tins of fruits sometimes. You can actually buy ones now that have no iron sugar, they sell them. Always use them, always buy anything that says reduce salt as well. salt cans up the well. So be careful for that. Again, here's the link between having to learn this and then why will lesson survival in the grocery store? Also bread. My advice here is learn how to make bread and make your own bread. A lot of them break now, I love boy. I don't particularly like brown bread because it's like eating sodas in my comfort opinion. But yes, I know it's better for you. going tell my wife that over. But I don't like it. Brown made a voice. White brave, not so much. Also, to give you an idea of how much of this stuff is in processed, flour, and great that you can buy. At the minute, is the Republic of Ireland, big American companies, are being hurt by a change in the Republic of Ireland's tax cost. Not of Irish companies will welcome to Ireland in the 1990s. say hey, come over here, we'll give you a furtherall taxes or rentates if you want to build your industries in this country, which was great. But they're slowly adding certain taxes to things. One of them is the bread tax, and you can be exempt if you buy bread from the European Union or the Republic of Ireland. But a lot of companies, and this is an example of subway, don't want to buy the flour and process flour for their brain. Some we like to bring these in. And subway try to get these, the tanks except to break, and they suddenly did the chemical analysis. Now, bearing mind, this is in Europe. In the European Union, its bread, if there's one gram of sugar per 100 grains of flour. Then that can be considered brake making flour, and you can make bread with it, you can be taxed, you can get a tax break for that. The bread that is in Subway buns is 6 to 8 grams of sugar per 100 grams of flour, which, by EU regulations, legally makes that cake. So, they don't get their tax rate pay, but that much sugar in 100 rounds of flour is not good in the long term on the human body. So that's why we talk about disaccharine. Also, that fructose that the body can't deal with in too much above us actually causes a completely harmless striptomyces bacteria that lives in your mouth. And don't go,. Here's a harsh reality for it, and I don't want to make it, I don't want to, This isn't a weird Oh, I have a Catholic thing. Stop, I know, making out or something. We have a lot of bacteria in our match.. It's just there. We all bacteria on some sort. You're doing the phone, I do apologize. You thought avoiding folding, was your biggest herd in life. Really, now I'm thinking, if you go bowling, imagine putting your fingers in those holes, if you're afraid of jeers. Just don't. Well, your voice or bring hands sanitized and just spray in there. Anyway, I digress. There is a strap to nysis mutant, and mutant is scary. This will totally hless. Everyone has it. But if enough lacked fructose gets in your mouth, what it can do will speed up the one thing, everyone's afraid of, tooth to head. That will lead to cannonies that could actually lead to, um... root canals. So, one of the biggest leading problems of root can. If you ever, if you ever, hopefully this will never happen to you, I haven't had one yet. My wife had three. And she's American. I suppose I am technically, you know, she born, brain, walked the coat, as well. She's had three roots, you know, and now she doesn't eat excessively, but it's a thing. And it comes down to too much of that sugar in your diet over time. Can, of course, simplicate. Now, there was a United Nations report that came out in 2011, and you might think that's a good idea. There hasn't been one since, because this one took 40 years to comply. No one's in a big company to repeat a 40 year study. I can guarantee you that. So here you go, in the 19th, in 1971, the amount of carbohydrate consumption and male females all over the world show the percentage of carbohydrates that were consumed, and the percentage of body fat, and these individuals, and over here in the end, related to body mag index, and whether or not those percentage of people were Martis and peace. And you can see from 1971 to 2000, that increase in males and females. That is slowly down to the consumption of too much suprose. A disaccharide that contains glucose and frontos, it is not good for you in higher amounts at all. If you can get mold toes as a disagree, you can buy the most grocery stores, you can buy it via tea or coffee, if you like, and sugar in that. That would be we metaphor. But here is the problem I'm going to address on this, because I've been trying to make this as friendly as possible, because it's vocariously signature. So I'm gonna give you some goodwill examples of why you need to know this stuff. The tragedy of it is, can sugar is way more expensive than table sugar, which is why most people buying table sugar. It's cheaper. And people aren't being cheap or, you know, it's the fact that they just may not be able to buy the expensive, healthy alternative because everyone lives on a bubble. You, as undergraduate students, know the constraints of living on a budget. Now, if you've got the meal planned for Keysey, don't panic. And when she Webb actually does, that goes to great strengths to make the food that you get in that problem, this kind of thing is possible. So I do have it in good authority. They do mix in some cane sugar as often as I can. So whatever you eat is good for it or better for you. So, that's suprose. Another one. And here's... He's weird and lots of humans for a start. Lactose. Ever heard, everyone's not afraid to use mactose intolerants. Sometimes they'd make jokes about people being lactose intolerant, which is actually ridiculous. If you are lactose intolerant, well done. Hmm? You are actually, by chemically, what the human body should be. If you can tolerate lactose and drink milk and eat cheese like there's no tomorrow, you have a stable mutation that is a biological and evolutionary dumbass idea. So, if you know someone is lactose intolerance, apologize to them, and then shake their hand. Because that is the state that humans should be. We should not be able to consume milk past the age of one. There is no biological need for it if you have a balanced diet. So lactose is, again, a disaccharine. Galactose, which is milk sugar, and glucose. Galactose is six carbon sugar. They're joined beader 14 link together. That gives you the clue. When you get this lactose formed in milk, it's a byproduct of the metabolism of a cow's intestine tract to make milk. That makes lactose in the first place. Goat milk and sheep milk don't have as much lactose in it, so sometimes if you buy goat milk instead, you can do that. Oh, you can complete the solve the problem by getting almond milk or something. There's plenty of alternatives, and you can get lactate milk, but actually just mechanically treat the milk to break this belly sucker away down. It's completely tasty, exactly the same. But if you ever look at it, look at the price is more expensive. It's like that's the trade-off right there. Now, lactose production, or lactate production, happens naturally in our digestive systems when we're born, because your breast friend from your mother. Most some mothers come back from breastfeed. It's not because they didn't like you. Some women just actually call breast food. It just cold. No one actually knows why, but it's not a personal snug use. If you're ever pissed off, say, well, my mother may have rested me and that's why I'm sick all the time. It wasn't actually her fault. You know, cut the woman some slack. So as we get older, that lactose, or lactose, is just supposed to break down. We don't need it, because we move on the solid food. The fact that there was a boy, northern European group of people that actually had this stable mutation that allowed you to keep drinking milk. Unfortunately, most of those were English, and then when the English started the British Empire, they took that weird view that people should drink milk. With them, as they conquer the call of the bull, for no real reason whatsoever. Just for food. So we have this stigma of not being able to consume this disagroid, which we don't actually need, is we become adults if we have a good balanced diet. So, if you are lactose intolerant, and you drink, any day, it contains this disaccharide, it takes about 30 minutes and two hours to feel... any symptoms, using it, bloating, pains and cramps, rumbling in belly, gas, loose stools of diarrhea, all thrown up. And if you're really lucky, most of that at the same time. Yeah. But isn't the natural state of a human body to have, because we shouldn't need to consume. milk. In fact, over time, we've actually trained our biochemistry to adapt to milk. So if you look at these, I've got this data from the National Health Index. The US Department of Human Health Services. So you look at this is the percentage of population who are lactose intoler. Okay, one to 2% in northern European origin. because they're like, where are mutation that shouldn't exist? Or even while Caucasian being able to drink milk. So like, oh, that's cool, we can drink them. Yeah, shouldn't really. But a lot of people frown on it. Caucasian Americans 13%. Because your diet changed. As your ancestors moved to the United States or the colonies, they still call in, some bizarre reason. Hispanics, 50 days, African Americans, Asians, American Indians, those cultures never consumed milk, so, of course, they never would. need any form of enzyme that broke down lactose because they just wasn't in their diet. And when their diets fit, a diet changed with force upon them, they all got sick. So lactose and lactose and tolerant. I think they're lactose intolerants. That's something I want you to think about in this course. It shouldn't really be blashed about. It's actually lactose intolerant. People should be the law. And I'm not saying if you actually can consume your there's something wrong. You don't hear me say that. I'm just saying it. Think of it backwards the next time you talk to someone who's whacked those and told them, you've got a lovely piece of knowledge you've got from learning about sugars in a chemistry lecture in a human biology class, so thank you, folks, I mean. I try to make this as interesting as possible when talking about sugars, and it's not easy to be honest. All right, so, that's sugars. Now, let's talk about bigger groups of shoes. Starch, the energy reservoir in plants that we consume for energy, and we store as starch. Now, the second one that says, like, I want to apologize to you. What makes it harder in life for people like me to want to educate people is when some dumbass decides to take the same thing and give it to these things. It's always referred to as a starch in a plant or in mass. For some reason, I can't find the answer to. I've asked, in humans, start to refer the boy. It's just one more thing for you to learn and then panic before you 1st exam. So please make a note somewhere that starts in Blycogen or exactly the same thing. And that will hopefully stop you from paning. They are both made up of two things. Amalos and amalotactin, all at ease, amalotactin. All of this, all that stuff. That's just blue coat molecules, alpha meat to give. That's all is. It's just one. The six carbon sugar, joined together in various different ways, and they can be very highly coiled up. Now, this page here, this is an electromicroscrap or a slice of liver tissue from the hue. Those black dots are blycogene uraniums. Now, I'm not going to get all physicsy and explaining how an electron microsoft looks. But when, especially on the old type one, before there was digital cameras, they used to have a phosphate plate that gave you a greenish image of what you were looking at with an incredibly high definition. Anything that was black was the inability of the phosphates and the high energy beam that passed through it. So it's called electron dense. In other words, you don't know what it is, because the electron could be fired through it at high speed. If it's electrical dense, it's really compact, so it's solid. So it's a real big, small, massively condensed spike in something. Flighting granules show up as black. Should we give you an idea of the huge amount of complexity of all those sugars being twisted up to the point where they show up as nothing on an electromicroscope page? That's how much storage space our liver has of storing glucose in our body to keep our blood sugar level cost. Does that make sense? Huge amount of liver, storage capacity for glycogen, which is starch. Remember that. And start is alpha lit, sugar. Starch is a storage polysaccharided alkalete. Remember that, and this, and you can guarantee you to get four of the first set of exam questions, Mike, and I will tell you this again between your 1st example. Please make a note. Another storage or structural polysaccharide made out of sugar, and predominantly star, glucose, is so enough. This is what we eat. This is the bio mass of wax, but indirectly or directly, we actually need cellulos. We can't digest it, because it's really... It is a storage polysaccharide implants. So, start with alphletes, cellulose, and this other stuff called callows, is beetling. His cellulose. It makes up most of the biomass of a plant. Also... Another reason why we come as human digestive, cellulose, is it's twisted in a weird way. See these yellow and pinky red things out. They're glucose molecules, but they're twisted 180 degrees. So you've got one this way, and one that way. Linked together by a beer leaf. And we don't have an enzyme in us that can break that day. So the repeat unit of cellulose is beta linked, seller bios, and we can't digest it. Again, directory salads can actually be great for a balanced diet and to help you maintain a healthy body mass index if you walk. Well, be careful if you're just being salad. Put something on there. Put some protein on there. I don't know what it is. Just have a protein sauce in there. Just don't eat green suddenly or good. You're going to get sick, you'll get mount, you get malnourished for a start because we can't digest it. That's sell a bio's repeat unit. Human body can't digest it. It's being linked, it's glucose, molecules mixed up together in a weird way, and we can't do anything about it. So all that potential food is lost. Does that make sense? Right, that's all you need to know about carlohydrates. There's less to know about leapies and stuff all that. They can't behind you is most of our diet. That's why I didn't get one. So, Lippies, you can have simple lippies. You're gonna fatty acids, waxes, cholesterol. We all need a small amount of constant level of ease in our body to be healthy. We need to take Olympics. It makes the sheets around our nervous system work. If we'd a totally fat free diet, we'd be very, very sick. So you do have to consume some lippies and fats. They can be very complex, and they can be very simple. And, of course, there are fosto limpies, which will talk about more on the next module, we talk about the membranes of cells. But still, quite simply put, there are many different types of liglies. Now, the general structure is like this, and again, I want to reiterate. We haven't seen a decent picture on a textbook in a while. I am not expecting you to memorize this or draw that. So you're good. What this shows is just the structure of a fatty ass. You all heard a tricac rides, you got a mud test, and you got spare tricacarides and good tricacarides. The bad tricac rides mostly, and this isn't 100% correct, but for the purposes of just a general yellow stick, what to gauge. If you have the bag, fatty acids, they're saturated. There's an example of a saturated fatty acid, I think, with the OH and the circle. You see all those carbons, and they've all got a hydrogen, attach them, right? That is a saturated fatty acid. It's saturated with hydrogen, and that's all that means. Now, what does that mean, practically, if you look at this triglyceride and it's all saturated fatty acids, then human body has a very hard time of breaking that down and digesting it, because that molecule doesn't allow any space for enzymes or anything in there to break it down? So it stays in us. It gets shunted, called the most part, animal mud system into our link system to try and break it down. It gets moved to deliver. So it gets taken out of a mud, shouted by a duck and put back around by our liberries and our liver tries to break it down. which has slightly a better success, but it's hard to do. So, if they don't get broken down, they persist, they build up, and this leads to plats forming on the inside of the arteries, and that's what restrips your arteries, and that can lead to a heart attack. Again, being the biggest killer of women and the 2nd biggest killer of a man in this country, commonly. It's all down to eating too many saturated fatty acids for certain things. Now... So it pains me to say so? What's the best source of having a very unhealthy, saturated fatty acid, cheap processed red meat? And yesterday's tack on Tuesday. Next time, taco cheese rolls around, maybe don't go straight to the, oh, the ¢50 tapos for taco bell or anything like that, because the meat, basically meat does contain a huge number of saturated fatty acids in them, and over time, that's quite bad for the human body. So, saturation, it is the power hydrant up there, again, top. Picture, that's a saturated fatty acid. Here is an unsaturated fanny ass. What you metaphor you? Why? See that double ball there where there's lax of hydrogen? They can pay. They expand. And in doing that, they form space, water, more than you can get. And in the inside of the human body, where water molecules go, soluble protein that act as anytime to break things down go with them. So the human body can easily digest saturated fanny acids. They are way better for us. And where do they come from, mostly? Planets. Plants generally make unsaturated fatty acids. Now, you do get meat that has certain amounts of unsaturated fatty acids for different fish. Those things like, um, to lack of catfish, if you can stab this male, um, salmon contain a lot of unsaturated fatty asps. Now, when we talk about fanny acids, there are two types. You got cysts and a trance. We take the bottom one, a trans fatty acid has, you can see here, is a naked carbon on opposite sides of that molecule. So that's got some bait. So that's a trans on saturated fale acid. Assist on saturated fatty acid, has those hydrogens on the same side. So this thing bends way more, which means it can be broken down by the human body, more easily, more quickly, and thus, it's healthier for you. So, just I'll finish off on this, and I've only got a few days there. Here is a yardstick of how you can tell what's good for you. Cis and trans fatty acids are plant based materials. If you cook, I don't cook. You all use cooking oil, right? It's a liquid at room temperature. Hastes the turd oil. It contains... unsaturated fatty acids. Now, the more expensive the cookie oil you buy, when you get virgin olive oil, which is about $100 a bottle. That contains completely cys, unsaturated fatty acids. It's expensive, yes. It's actually the healthiest thing you can cook something with. Although cooking it with mud or butter does make it taste nicer, you will be dead quibbled. I can't just say that anymore. If you use plant-based cooking oils well done, exists and trams, the more watery your cooking oil is, the more it contains cyst, funny acid, yes. Oh, how? That does actually contain a lot of trends on such stuff. It does have water anyway. It's not I mean, it's good for your skiing, in that way, so you can not only, but unsaturated oil and cold. That's why beef towel is good for you, but not just sticking lower, because I'll do the same thing. Even though it is a cheap in it. The question. All right. I went out of time and that's it. We found the assets. We'll talk about osmo lipids on Friday, you lucky duck.

1. Introduction to Biological Macromolecules

• Life is built upon basic chemistry and four primary classes of organic macromolecules:

  • Carbohydrates

  • Lipids

  • Proteins

  • Nucleic Acids

• Metabolic Roles:

  • Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins form the core of human nutrition and energy production.

  • Nucleic acids are vital for cellular repair, DNA replication, reproduction, and maintaining overall cellular health.

  • The body can synthesize nucleotides using building blocks derived from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

2. Carbohydrates

• Definition & Structure:

  • The term "carbohydrate" literally means "hydrate of carbon."

  • For every carbon atom ($C$), there is typically the equivalent of one water molecule ($H_2O$).

• Functions in the Human Body:

  • Structural Support: Minor structural role in human cells/tissues compared to plants or insects.

  • Cell Recognition & Immune Function: Carbohydrates attached to cell membrane lipids and proteins act as markers, allowing the immune system to recognize healthy self-cells. Failures in recognition can trigger autoimmune responses (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis) or allergic reactions.

  • Energy Production: Carbohydrate metabolism during cellular respiration is the primary source of daily energy.

2.1 Nomenclature and Sugar Types

• Sugars are named based on the number of carbon atoms:

  • Pentoses: Five-carbon sugars (e.g., ribose, deoxyribose, fructose derivative structures).

  • Hexoses: Six-carbon sugars (e.g., glucose, galactose).

2.2 Classification by Chain Length

1. Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).

2. Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides linked together (e.g., maltose, sucrose, lactose).

3. Oligosaccharides: Short chains containing $3$ to $6$ sugar units.

4. Polysaccharides: Long chains containing more than $6$ sugar units; often become insoluble and serve storage or structural functions.

2.3 Glycosidic Linkages: Alpha ($\alpha$) vs. Beta ($\beta$) Links

• Sugars are joined by glycosidic links formed at specific carbon positions on the sugar ring.

• Orientation:

  • Alpha ($\alpha$) Link: The glycosidic bond points downward (opposite side of the oxygen ring).

  • Digestibility: Humans possess enzymes (e.g., salivary amylase) capable of breaking down $\alpha$-glycosidic bonds for energy extraction.

  • Beta ($\beta$) Link: The glycosidic bond points upward (same side as the oxygen ring).

  • Digestibility: Humans lack enzymes to digest most $\beta$-linked carbohydrates (e.g., cellulose). These pass through the digestive tract as dietary fiber/roughage.

  • Evolutionary Adaptation: Certain animals (e.g., ruminants like cows; lagomorphs like rabbits) utilize specialized gut anatomy, microflora, or behaviors (cecotrophy) to break down $\beta$ links. Ancestral humans likely possessed functional appendix enzymes for $\beta$-link digestion prior to dietary shifts.

2.4 Important Disaccharides

• Maltose:

  • Composed of two glucose molecules joined by an $\alpha$-glycosidic bond.

  • Derived from starches; easily digested into glucose for energy or liver storage.

• Sucrose (Table Sugar):

  • Composed of one glucose unit and one fructose unit.

  • Used heavily in processed foods as a sweetener and preservative.

  • High consumption provides excess fructose, which is shunted into fat metabolism, leading to weight gain.

  • Promotes growth of oral bacteria (Streptococcus mutans), accelerating tooth decay and cavities.

• Lactose:

  • Composed of galactose and glucose joined by a $\beta\text{-1,4-linkage}$.

  • Primary sugar in milk and dairy products.

  • Requires the enzyme lactase for breakdown.

  • Lactose Intolerance: Biological baseline for adult humans; lactase production decreases post-weaning. Persistence evolved via mutation in specific populations (e.g., Northern European origins).

  • Undigested lactose causes bloating, gas, cramps, and diarrhea.

2.5 Polysaccharides

• Storage Polysaccharides:

  • Starch / Glycogen: Polymers of $\alpha$-linked glucose units.

  • Starch: Storage form in plants.

  • Glycogen: Storage form in human liver and muscle cells; stored as dense granules and regulated by insulin.

• Structural Polysaccharides:

  • Cellulose: Structural component of plant cell walls composed of $\beta$-linked glucose units (repeating cellobiose units). Indigestible by humans.

3. Lipids

• General Characteristics:

  • Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules essential for cell membrane structure, nerve myelin sheath insulation, hormone synthesis, and energy storage.

• Major Classes:

  • Simple lipids: Fatty acids, waxes, cholesterol.

  • Complex lipids: Triglycerides, phospholipids.

3.1 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids

1. Saturated Fatty Acids:

   • Contain only single carbon-carbon bonds ($C-C$); fully saturated with hydrogen atoms.

   • Structure: Straight hydrocarbon chains pack tightly, making them solid at room temperature (e.g., animal fats).

   • Health Impact: Difficult to break down efficiently; excess intake contributes to arterial plaque formation and cardiovascular risks.

2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids:

   • Contain one or more double carbon-carbon bonds ($C=C$), introducing kinks into the hydrocarbon chain.

   • Structure: Kinked chains prevent tight packing, remaining liquid at room temperature (e.g., plant oils).

   • Isomeric Configurations:

     • Cis Configuration: Hydrogens attached to the double bond are on the same side, creating a bend. Easily processed by the body (e.g., olive oil).

     • Trans Configuration: Hydrogens are on opposite sides of the double bond, resulting in a straighter chain similar to saturated fats.