The Ultimate Guide to AP United States Government and Politics

Enlightenment Philosophies

  • The framers lived during a time of new ideas about government organization and function, challenging existing systems.
  • The Enlightenment (18th century) was a philosophical movement in Western Europe, emphasizing reason over tradition for solving social problems.
  • Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan - 1660):
    • Believed people couldn't govern themselves.
    • Advocated for a monarch with absolute power to protect life.
    • Supported the rule of law and a social contract where freedoms are sacrificed for government protection.
  • John Locke (Second Treatise on Civil Government - 1690):
    • Argued for the protection of natural rights.
    • Empiricism: individuals are born with a tabula rasa (blank slate) and are shaped by experience.
    • Natural rights (life, liberty, property) are granted by God and must be protected by the government.
    • Advocated for the right to revolution if natural rights are taken away.
  • Charles de Montesquieu (The Spirit of the Laws - 1748):
    • Proposed the separation of power into three branches of government.
    • Checks and balances to limit the power of each branch.
  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract - 1762):
    • Believed people are born good but corrupted by society.
    • Argued people should act for the greater good rather than self-interest.
  • Voltaire (Candide):
    • Satirical novel reflecting dislike of Christian power and nobles.
    • Advocated for rationality and freedom of thought, speech, religion, and politics.
  • Denis Diderot:
    • Producer/editor of the first encyclopedia.
    • Aimed to change ways of thinking by including philosophies.
    • Advocated for freedom of expression and universal education access.
    • Criticized divine right, traditional values, and religion.

Forms of Representative Democracy

  • Philosophers favored democracy over absolute monarchy.
  • Participatory democracy: broad participation in politics and society by people at various status levels
  • Pluralist democracy: group-based activism by citizens with common interests seeking the same goals.
  • Elite democracy: power is given to the educated and wealthy, discouraging participation by the majority.
  • Republicanism: supports individualism, natural rights, popular sovereignty, and civic participation.
  • American Republicanism is characterized by representative democracy.
  • Popular sovereignty: government power derives from the consent of the governed (e.g., elections, protests).

The Declaration of Independence

  • A formal declaration of war between America and Great Britain.
  • Written by Thomas Jefferson.
  • List of grievances outlining King George III's "crimes" against the colonies.
  • Justification for the colonies declaring independence.
  • Served as a template for other nations declaring independence.

The Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

  • Outlined the first government of the United States of America.
  • Predecessor to the Constitution, followed from 1776 to 1781; ratified and named in 1781
  • Accomplishments:
    • Created federalism: the way in which federal and state/regional governments Interact and share power
    • Ended the Revolutionary War on favorable terms for the United States (Treaty of Paris - 1783).
    • Established the Northwest Ordinance, creating methods for states to enter the US.
  • Weaknesses (1787):
    • Trade between states declined, monetary value dropped, foreign countries posed threats, social disorder throughout the country.
    • Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787):
      • A 6-month rebellion by over 1,000 farmers.
      • Attack on a federal arsenal in protest of farm foreclosures in western Massachusetts.
      • Major concern at the Constitutional Convention.
      • Exposed issues with the Articles of Confederation and showed the necessity of a strong central government.
    • Could not impose taxes (result of taxation without representation); only state governments could levy taxes
    • National government was in debt from the Revolutionary War had no way to pay for expenses
    • Could only acquire money by requesting it from states, borrowing from other governments, or selling lands in the West
    • No national military, could not draft soldiers.
    • No national currency.
    • No Supreme Court to interpret law.
    • No executive branch to enforce laws.
    • No control over taxes imposed between states and could not control interstate trade.
    • Needed unanimous votes to amend the Articles.
    • 9/13 states had to approve legislation before it was passed
    • Could not control states.
    • No enforcement mechanisms/requests from within the federal government.
    • Needed to be revised.
  • The Constitutional Convention resulted in a complete rewrite of the Articles, leading to the Constitution.

The Constitutional Convention

  • Meeting of the framers in 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
  • Divisions over powers, structure, and responsibilities of government.
  • Some believed that the government under the Articles was too weak, others believed that it shouldn’t be changed
  • Generally accepted as pragmatists who tried to protect their and everyone else’s property + rights
  • Stronger central government necessary, but with the potential to be corrupted.
  • Federal legislature had two main issues:
    • Unicameral (single house) vs. bicameral (two house) legislative branch.
      • Madison’s Virginia Plan: bicameral legislature based on population size, supported by larger states because of better representation.
      • New Jersey Plan: unicameral legislature, one vote per state, similar to Articles of Confederation, smaller states worried that the government would be dominated by larger states.
      • The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): a bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives (population) and Senate (equal representation).
    • Representation of enslaved people.
      • Northerners: enslaved people should not be counted for electoral votes.
      • Southerners: enslaved people should be counted for electoral votes (larger population when enslaved people were counted).
      • Three-Fifths Compromise:
        • Ensured states with larger populations didn’t completely overpower smaller states.
        • Enslaved people would be counted as 3/5 of a person when deciding seats in the House of Representatives.
  • Authority to enforce laws.
    • Created chief executive (president).
    • Enforcer of the law, could keep the legislative branch in check.
    • Presidential approval required before bills become law.
    • The President can veto acts of the legislature.
    • Congress can override veto if 2/3 of both houses vote.
  • Supreme Court:
    • Could mediate disputes between legislative and executive branches, between states, and between state and federal governments.

Acceptance of the Constitution

  • Had to be submitted to states for ratification.
  • Federalists: supporters of the Constitution, advocated for a strong central government.
    • Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote The Federalist Papers: a collection of articles supporting the Constitution.
    • Best reflects the original intent of the framers.
    • Persuaded states of the superiority of a strong central government plus power kept by the states
  • Anti-Federalists: opponents of the Constitution, preferred smaller state governments (Articles of Confederation).
    • Believed that the Constitution would threaten personal liberties and make the president a king.
    • Feared tyranny and abuse of power.
    • Wanted a Bill of Rights: protects the rights of citizens from the government.
    • Guaranteed by the Federalists and was added immediately after ratification.
    • 10 amendments written by James Madison
  • Created the Electoral College:
    • Composed of elected officials from each state based on population (each given 2 votes + 1 vote per member of House of Representatives) with a total of 538 electors.
    • Originally created because the framers didn’t trust American citizens to be educated enough to choose a good president.
    • Thought the Electoral College would protect elections against the influence of small groups.
    • The presidential candidate who wins 270 electoral votes wins the election regardless of who wins the popular vote.

The Federalist Papers and Anti-Federalist Dissent

  • Brutus No. 1:
    • Anonymous author (pseudonym Brutus) asked questions about and critiqued the draft of the Constitution.
    • The first publication that began a series of essays known as the Federalist and Anti-Federalist Papers.
    • National government had too much power, an army could prevent liberty, and representatives may not truly be representative of the people.
    • Major dissent: The Federalist Papers attempted to answer questions and address concerns posed by Brutus + other Anti-Federalists
  • Federalist No. 10:
    • Written by James Madison.
    • Addresses dangers of factions and how to protect minority interest groups in a nation ruled by the majority.
    • Argues that a large republic keeps any single faction from taking control.
    • Major dissent: Anti-Federalists thought that Madison’s claims were unrealistic and that a country with multiple factions could never create a good union. Believed that no large nation could survive and that states’ separate interests would fracture the republic.
  • Federalist No. 51:
    • Written by James Madison.
    • Argued that separation of powers would make the government efficient, dividing responsibilities and tasks.
    • Major dissent: Anti-Federalists believed that there was no perfect separation of powers and that one branch of government would eventually hold more power.
  • Federalist No. 70:
    • Written by Alexander Hamilton.
    • Argued that the executive branch should only have one member: the president.
    • Used the British monarchy as an example: the king had power but was checked by the House of Commons.
    • Proposed term limits as another way to limit the president’s power (not set until the 22nd Amendment in 1951).
    • Major dissent: Anti-Federalists believed that only the president’s staff would influence him and disagreed with giving control of the military to one person.
  • Federalist No. 78:
    • Written by Alexander Hamilton.
    • Addressed concerns about the power of the judicial branch.
    • Argued that the judicial branch would have the least amount of power under the Constitution but would also have the power of judicial review (check on Congress).
    • Major dissent: Anti-Federalists claimed that a federal judiciary could overpower states’ judiciaries and that judges’ lifetime appointments could result in corruption.

The Constitution as an Instrument of Government

  • The Constitution is vague and only outlines the government structure.
  • Written to allow change through amendments.
  • Branches of government have evolved since ratification.
  • Articles I-III: set up the three branches of government (in order):
    • Legislative branch
    • Executive branch
      • “The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United states of America”
      • Power to issue executive orders (same effect as law, bypasses Congress in policy-making, not mentioned in the Constitution, used as part of the enforcement duties).
        • Ex. Executive Order 9066: FDR ordered people (Japanese and German Americans) from a military zone
      • Executive agreements between country leaders are similar to treaties but bypass the ratification power of the Senate (not mentioned in the Constitution).
    • Judicial branch
      • Marbury v. Madison (1803): Supreme Court increased its own power by giving itself the power to overturn laws passed by the legislature (judicial review).
  • Necessary and proper clause: allows Congress to make any legislation that seems “necessary and proper” to carry through its powers (aka the elastic clause).
    • Ex. nothing in the Constitution that creates the Federal Reserve System (central bank), nothing about the executive branch’s cabinet.
    • Federal District Courts and Courts of Appeals both created by Congress
  • Supremacy clause: supremacy of Constitution and federal laws over state laws
    • “and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof…shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding”

Federalism

  • A system of government under which the national and local governments share powers (e.g., Germany, Switzerland, and Australia).
  • Confederation: a system in which decisions are made by an external member-state legislation; decisions on daily issues are taken by special majorities, consensus, or unanimity
  • Supreme Court cases:
    • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):
      • The court ruled that states could not tax the national bank.
      • Reinforced supremacy clause of Constitution - issues between state + federal government laws should be ruled in favor of federal.
      • Necessary and proper clause - banks were necessary to implement federal powers.
    • United States v. Lopez (1995):
      • Challenge to the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 (banned guns on school property).
      • Held that the commerce clause didn't allow regulation of carrying guns.
      • New phase of federalism - state sovereignty and local control were important

Powers Under Federalism

  • Delegated (enumerated) powers: powers that belong to the national government.
    • Ex. printing money, regulating interstate and international trade, making treaties and conducting foreign policy, declaring war, est. post offices, lower courts, rules of naturalization, and copyright/patent laws; raising + supporting armed forces, making all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out duties
  • Reserved powers: powers that belong to the states (10th Amendment).
    • Include any that the Constitution neither gives to the national government nor denies to the states.
    • Ex. issuing licenses, regulating intrastate business, conducting elections, est. local governments, maintaining a justice system, educating residents, maintaining a militia, providing public health, safety, and welfare programs.
  • Concurrent powers: shared by federal and state governments.
    • Ex. levying/collecting taxes, building roads, operating courts, establishing courts, chartering banks + corps, eminent domain, paying debts, borrowing money
  • The Constitution specifies which powers are denied to the national government and states.
  • The Constitution makes the federal government guarantee states a republican government and protection against rebellion + invasion.
  • Prevents states from dividing or combining without congressional approval.
  • States are required to accept court rulings, licenses, contracts, or other civil acts of other states.
    First federal/state governments were independent
  • Most Americans had contact w/government on state level

Denied Powers

  • Federal government:
    • Suspend writ of habeas corpus except during a national crisis.
    • Pass ex post facto laws or issuance of bills of attainder.
    • Impose export taxes.
    • Use money from the treasury without an appropriations bill.
    • Grant titles of nobility.
  • State governments:
    • Enter into treaties with other countries.
    • Declare war.
    • Maintain an army.
    • Print money.
    • Pass ex post facto laws or issuance of bills of attainder.
    • Grant titles of nobilities.
    • Impose import or export duties.

Federal Government Programs

  • Most are administered through states.
  • Paid for by the federal government through grants-in-aid.
  • Some politicians tie strings to grants (federal government still in control over money), other politicians want no strings attached (state/local government decides how to spend).
  • Grants:
    • Categorical grants: aid with strict rules from the federal government about how it is used (used by those who favor federal power).
    • Block grants: aid that lets the state use the money how it wants (used by those who favor states’ rights).
  • The federal government can still use techniques to make states follow federal law.
    • Ex. direct orders, preemption.

Advantages of Federalism

  • Mass participation (many can participate on many issues).
  • Regional autonomy (states still have some powers).
  • Multi-level government (local, state, federal; many politicians connected to supporters).
  • Innovative methods (states can experiment with policies).
  • Diffusion of power (no party domination).
  • Diversity in government.

Disadvantages of Federalism

  • Lack of consistency (differing policies create inequality in states).
  • Inefficiency (overlapping/contradictory policies).
  • Bureaucracy (corruption/stalemate through spread-out power).
  • Resistance Inequity (legislation/judicial outcomes)

Separation of Powers

  • Borrowed idea from French political philosopher Charles de Montesquieu.
  • Assigned different tasks to each branch of government:
    • Legislative branch makes laws.
    • Executive branch enforces laws.
    • Judicial branch interprets laws.
  • Prevents a person from being in more than one branch at a time (has to resign in order to change positions).

System of Checks and Balances

  • Designed to prevent any branch of government from becoming dominant.
  • Requires different branches to work together and share power.
  • Examples:
    • Nomination of federal judges, cabinet officials, and ambassadors: The President chooses nominees who must be approved by the Senate.
    • Negotiation of treaties: The President is empowered to negotiate treaties, but they cannot go into effect until approved by 2/3 of the Senate.
    • Enactment of legislation:
      • Congress passes legislation, but the president can veto (reject) laws.
      • Encourages Congress to pass laws that align with the president’s views or negotiate to avoid being vetoed.
      • Congress can override a veto by passing a law with a 2/3 majority in both houses (law becomes law regardless of the president).
      • Courts can determine the constitutionality of law and overturn laws if they are unconstitutional.

Amendment Process

  • The addition of a provision to the Constitution.
  • Main process:
    • The proposed amendment must be approved by 2/3 of both houses of Congress.
    • 3/4 of state legislatures must ratify (approve) the amendment, and the states themselves are allowed to determine the votes required to ratify the amendment.
  • Congress can also mandate that each state use a ratifying convention (delegates elected to vote on the amendment).
    • Used once to ratify the 21st amendment (1933) - ended prohibition.
  • Another process:
    • 2/3 of state legislatures petition Congress for a constitutional convention.
    • Never happened before

State Governments

  • Can take any form, but must have a state constitution approved by Congress.
  • Most are structured after the federal government.
  • Executive branch led by the governor.
    • Direct state executive agencies (education, roads/building, policing).
    • Command state National Guard.
    • May grant pardons and reprieves.
    • Most can appoint state judges with the “advice and consent” of a state legislative body.
    • Can veto state legislation (may use a line-item veto to reject parts of bills; denied to presidents by Supreme Court - would take too much power away from the legislature)
  • 49/50 states have bicameral legislatures.
    • Enact state law.
    • Can override the gubernatorial (governor) veto.
  • State judiciaries interpret state law.
    • Trial courts and appeals courts.
    • Hear criminal cases and civil cases (lawsuits).

Congressional Structure

  • Congress: the bicameral legislature for writing laws.
  • Oversees the bureaucracy, clarifies and codifies policy, represents citizens, builds consensus.
  • House of Representatives:
    • A 435-member house, with members apportioned by each state’s population (designed to represent population).
  • Senate:
    • A 100-member house, with 2 members per state (designed to represent states equally).
  • Census:
    • A survey taken every 10 years to count the population and determine the number of congressional districts each state has.
  • Redistricting:
    • The redrawing of district boundaries to ensure each district has an equal population (done by state legislature).
  • Gerrymandering:
    • Drawing district boundaries to give the majority party a future advantage (does not apply for Iowa; uses an independent commission to draw district lines).
    • Helps incumbents.
  • Some states have such small populations that the entire state becomes a district.
  • Each state is guaranteed one seat in the House

Congressional Elections

  • Elections for the House of Representatives are every two years.
    • Representatives must live in the district they represent and be a citizen of the state, and must be 25 years old.
    • Elections take place within each district.
    • Constituencies are smaller than senators’.
    • Incumbent election rates are very high (>90%).
    • Less competitive
  • Elections for the Senate are every two years.
    • Each term is six years.
    • Senators must be at least 30 years old.
    • More competitive, expensive, and high profile.
    • Draw candidates from other offices
  • Baker v. Carr (1962):
    • Charles Baker sued Tennessee for not redrawing its state legislative districts because his county’s population had grown but not gained representation.
    • Violated the 14th amendment (equal protection of the law).
    • Ruled in a 6-2 decision that the government can force states to redistrict every 10 years.
    • Led to the development of the “one person, one vote” doctrine.
    • Gave federal courts the right to weigh in on redistricting.
  • Shaw v. Reno (1993):
    • White voters living in North Carolina’s 12th district sued the state for gerrymandering to isolate African Americans into the 12th district.
    • Ruled in a 5-4 decision that the state was using racial bias in its redistricting.
    • Violated equal protection clause.
    • Any racial gerrymandering required a compelling state interest.

Congressional Districts and Representation

  • Voting Rights Act of 1965:
    • Encouraged states to increase minority representation in Congress (initially made little change).
  • 1982 Amendment:
    • Made states create majority-minority districts (concentrating minority populations into districts).
    • Made it easier for minority candidates to get elected.
    • Many states redistricted after the 1990 census, resulting in an increase of minority representation.
    • District shapes were weird.
  • Legislators in NC, GA, TX, and other states have been accused of gerrymandering:
    • Black and Hispanic voters are majority Democrat, Republican-controlled legislatures were accused of trying to remove racial minority Democrats from districts to ensure more Republicans get elected.
    • Packing: isolating minorities in a district.
    • Cracking: dividing minorities across many districts.
  • Population shifts gave more seats in the House to Southern states but took away seats from other regions.
  • Suburban representation has increased, but both rural and urban have decreased.
  • Hijacking: redrawing two districts in a way that forces two incumbents to face each other in a single district.
  • Kidnapping: moving an incumbent’s home into another area after redistricting.

Congressional Powers

  • The Constitution lists out the responsibilities of Congress in more detail than the other branches.
  • Both houses have unique powers that require them to work together, including taxing, borrowing money, regulating commerce, raising an army, creating/making rules for courts, establishing naturalization laws, creating post offices, building a militia, and making laws.
  • Taxing and spending clause (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1): gives Congress much control over budgetary spending.
    • “Power of the purse”: gives Congress power to influence others by preventing access to funds or adding conditions.
    • Can be used positively to fund programs or negatively to harm an agency.
    • House of Representatives can start spending bills and tax laws (House of Ways and Means Committee oversees spending laws and taxing).
  • The Senate can approve presidential nominations to court and ambassadors to other countries; must also ratify all treaties the president signs.

Non-Legislative Tasks of Congress

  • Congress primarily writes laws.
  • Oversight:
    • Reviews federal agencies’ work (checks executive branch).
    • Investigates charges of corruption; holds hearings (experts and citizens discuss government issues and propose solutions).
    • All committee chairs can subpoena (legally compel) witnesses to show and testify.
    • Confirms members of the presidential cabinet.
    • Approves nominees for federal court.
  • Public education:
    • Floor debates and committee hearings increase awareness of government/social issues and help to focus national attention.
  • Representing constituents within the government:
    • Politicos (representatives of electorates, Congress members) help constituents with the government and vote on laws.
    • Can act on complaints about federal services/agencies, sponsor those who seek contracts, and seek suggestions on improvement

Models of Representation

  • Delegate Model (representational view): Consider themselves delegates who mirror the views of their districts.
  • Trustee Model (attitudinal view): Some consider themselves trustees who should think about constituents’ views but use their judgement when making decisions.
  • Constitutional amendments: can propose amendments by 2/3 vote in both houses or by a convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures
  • Electoral duties:
    • The House can elect next president if neither candidate gets 270 votes, the Senate picks the VP
  • Impeachment:
    • The House has power over impeachment; if the majority votes to impeach an official, the Senate runs the impeachment trial and convicts/removes the official from office with 2/3 of Senate votes.
  • Confirmation duties:
    • Senate can approve both presidential appointments and federal officials.
  • Ratification:
    • Only the Senate can ratify treaties if 2/3 votes. Senate can influence international relations and foreign policy
  • Investigation:
    • Can be conducted by either a standing or committee and may last months while members gather evidence and witnesses. Majority lead to new legislation to address the issue, changes in programs, or officials’ removal from office

Legislative Process

  • Slow and complicated.
  • Prevents decisions from being made too quickly.
  • Facilitates compromise and communication between both sides.
  • Bills:
    • 10,000 bills introduced every year.
    • Some written by Congress members and staff, others are written by the executive branch and introduced by Congress members, and many are written or suggested by interest groups and lawyers.
    • Can only be proposed by a Congress member (the sponsor of the bill).
    • Requires two houses to work together (both houses must pass the same bills and have different debate and voting processes).
  • House of Representatives: debates about bills are limited in the House of Representatives (too many people).
    • Rules Committee: determines how long a bill will be debated and whether open or closed rules for amending bills are allowed.
      • Open rules allow amendments, and closed rules forbid amendments.
      • Republicans (majority) in 1994 promised open rules for most bills.
      • Considered the most powerful committee in the House.
      • Can kill a bill by postponing a vote or make it easy for an opponent to add killer (poison-pill) amendments.
      • Can bring bills up for immediate vote.
  • Senate:
    • Does not strictly control debate, no time constraints.
    • Filibuster: used to delay a bill’s vote and tie up the Senate’s work, usually by a senator making a very long speech (can happen without speeches, and the Senate majority may require a traditional filibuster if needed).
    • Cloture: the vote which is the only way to end a filibuster, requires votes of 60 members.
    • No closed rules.
    • Riders: amendments that do not have to be relevant to the bill, allow senators to add amendments.
    • Pork barrels: “pet project” riders created to get money to a home state.
    • Earmark: provisions in legislation that allot money to a project (appropriation and authorization bills) (not allowed by House
  • Conference committee: committee each house’s version of a bill is sent to which come from the committees of each house that wrote the bill
    • Attempts to negotiate a compromise bill returning the compromise bill to both houses for voting.
    • Failure to pass a compromise bill will kill it
    • Sent to White House if passed for presidential approval.
  • President:
    • The bill becomes law after 10 days if the president does nothing regardless of signature. A bill is pocket vetoed if the president doesn’t sign every bill into law and the congressional session ends during the 10 days.
    • The president can veto entire bill if the congressional session doesn’t end in 10 days and gives reasons for vetoing.
    • Both houses can override veto by a two-thirds vote.
    • Houses can also make any required changes: if the house of origin does nothing with the veto, the bill is dead.
    • Line-item veto: given to President Clinton in 1996 by Congress, allowed the president to veto certain parts of a bill.
      • Clinton v. City of New York (1998): the Supreme Court struck down the line-item veto as an unconstitutional power of the president.
  • Congress has tried to give itself veto power over the president; wrote legislation giving Congress the ability to void presidential actions by a vote of the houses.
    • INS v. Chadha (1983): the Supreme Court declared a legislative veto unconstitutional.

Legislation by Committee

  • Most legislative activities by Congress are in committees.
  • Committee members are determined by many factors: the majority party of each house holds all committee chairs and also holds most seats on each committee (2/3 on important committees).
  • The oldest/most experienced member of the majority party is chair, and the senior member from the minority party is the ranking member (ranking member becomes chair if the minority party becomes the majority party).
  • Assignments determined by House and Senate leaders + both parties’ caucus; try to get on committees that will help them help the constituents the most and with reelection.
  • Investigate and debate bills that otherwise wouldn’t be considered due to time; call interested parties and expert witnesses (often lobbyists).
  • Congress can subpoena witnesses.
  • After investigations committees amend and rewrite parts of bills in meetings known as markup sessions (often first assigned to a subcommittee for consideration).
  • Often determine how money is spent.
  • Most die because of lack of interest (membership of committee and subcommittee is crucial; bills are written to appeal to certain committees).
  • Can refuse to vote a bill out (pigeonholed: a bill is stuck in a committee).
  • Discharge petition: the way to force a bill out of committee for a floor vote
  • Oversee bureaucratic agencies and departments.
    • Heads of agencies often appear before congressional committees (can subpoena witnesses (legally requires individuals to appear or produce requested documents) and hear testimony from agency heads asking for money or people).
  • The House has more committees and are more specialized because each member serves on fewer committees.

Types of Committees

  • Standing committees: permanent, specialized.
    • Ex. House Ways and Means, Senate Judiciary, Senate Armed Services (17 in the Senate, 20 in the House).
  • Joint committees: made up of members of both houses (normally used for investigations or communicating with the public).
  • Select committees: temporary committees created in each house for a special reason (usually carry out investigations to write special bills).
    • Ex. House Watergate Committee, Senate Select Committee on Unfair Practices.
  • Conference committee: temporary committees made up of members from committees of both houses who wrote a bill (try to create compromise bills, then submit to both houses, and are disbanded once a compromise bill is negotiated).
  • Freedom of Information Act (1966): let the public view government documents

Congressional Leadership

  • The House:
    • The leader is the speaker (chosen by the majority party in an election).
    • Can direct floor debate and has influence over committee assignment and the Rules Committee (can control which bills are assigned to certain committees).
    • The majority leader is in charge of party members, determines party policy and agenda.
    • The minority leader is in charge of minority party members, determines the party’s agenda.
    • Majority and minority whips help their leaders keep members loyal to the agenda, coordinate members, and get support for legislation.
  • The Senate:
    • The President of the Senate is the vice president (only official responsibility and only votes to break a tie).
    • The president pro tempore is the temporary president when the VP is absent (mostly honorary position, usually given to the oldest member of the majority party).
    • The majority leader controls the agenda and acts as policy initiator and power broker.
    • The minority leader is similar, not policy initiator or agenda controller.

Why Do They Vote That Way?

  • Pressure to influence a vote from their own party and the opposition.
  • The president jawbones (tries to influence), and colleagues logroll (mutual help).
  • PACs, constituents, and interest groups donate to try to influence votes.
  • Judgement can be affected by personal ideology and religion.
  • Party affiliation is the most important factor.

Notable Legislation

  • National Growth, Expansion, and Building Institutions:
    • Northwest Ordinance (1787, 1789): created by the Articles of Confederation, provided guidelines for settling new territories and creating new states, reaffirmed in the Constitution in 1789.
  • Government and Industry Regulation:
    • Pendleton Act (1883): got rid of the spoils system for government job selection, set up an exam-based merit system for candidates.
    • Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890): gave Congress the power to regulate and disassemble monopolies in the US