Economic Growth and Colonialism

Colonialism and Economic Growth

Understanding Colonialism

• Definition of Colonialism:

  • Not a modern phenomenon, societies have historically expanded and settled on newly conquered territory.

  • The modern European colonial project, particularly from the $16$th century, was enabled by technological developments in navigation.

  • Distinct features of modern European colonialism include:

    • The ability to move large numbers of people across oceans.

    • Maintaining political control despite significant geographical separation.

    • Involving European settlement, violent disposition, and political domination of indigenous peoples.

  • Whyte ($2017$, p$154$) defines it as: "Colonialism refers to a form of domination in which at least one society seeks to exploit some set of benefits believed to be found in the territory of one or more other societies, from farm land to precious minerals to labor. Exploitation can occur through military invasion, slavery, and settlement."

• Dynamics of Colonialism:

  • Colonization is not a single, isolated event; it is a dynamic, changing, and continuing process.

  • Many contemporary ideas, practices, and societal conditions are direct legacies of colonialism.

Settler Colonialism

• Characteristics in Australia (Howitt, $2020$, p$4$):

  • European colonizers often misunderstood the landscapes they sought to control.

  • They assumed their arrival marked the "beginning of history," granting them an inherent right to possess lands and dispossess (and annihilate) indigenous peoples.

  • Colonizers believed their presence superseded any existing systems of governance and gave them unchallenged ownership of all resources, including those created over vast geological times, such as underground water and energy resources.

Eurocentrism and the Colonial Mindset

• Val Plumwood's Argument:

  • Eurocentrism served to justify European colonialism by portraying 'indigenous cultures' as 'primitive,' 'less rational,' and akin to children, animals, or nature.

  • The Western definition of humanity relied, and continues to rely, on the presence of the "non-human" – the uncivilized, the animal, and the animalistic.

  • European invasion and colonization were justified by understanding non-European lands, their inhabitants, and animals as 'spaces,' 'unused,' 'underused,' or 'empty' (Plumwood $2003$ in Huggan and Tiffin, $2010$: $5$).

• Colonialism as a Lens (Spread of Enlightenment Thought):

  • Colonialism served as a framework through which colonists understood the world and their place within it.

  • Key aspects of Enlightenment thought that were spread and reinforced through colonialism include:

    • A fundamental separation between humans and nature.

    • The establishment and reinforcement of patriarchal and racial hierarchies.

    • The prioritization of scientific rationality and objectivity over superstition and traditional belief systems.

    • The development of scientific classification to bring 'order' to 'nature,' categorizing everything.

    • European beliefs in civilization and stages of progress, framing the colonial mission as 'enlightening the savage'.

    • Eurocentric views that positioned Europe as the cultural, political, and developmental center of the world.

    • A strong emphasis on expansion and economic growth.

Exponential Growth

• Ubiquitous Nature of Exponential Growth:

  • Observed across various domains, including:

    • Population growth.

    • Economic output.

    • Energy consumption.

    • Waste production.

  • Peter Dauvergne ($2008$) discusses this in the context of "Shadows of consumption" (GFN $2010$ Global Footprint Network).

World Population Growth

• Historical and Projected Data (OurWorldinData.org):

  • Before $1800$, the world population growth rate never exceeded $0.5\%$.

  • $1750$: World population approximately $0.8$ Billion.

  • $1800$: Annual growth rate approximately $0.06\%$.

  • $1850$: World population approximately $1.2$ Billion.

  • $1900$: World population approximately $1.6$ Billion, annual growth rate approximately $0.8\%$.

  • $1950$: World population approximately $2.5$ Billion, annual growth rate approximately $2.1\%$.

  • $2000$: World population approximately $6.9$ Billion, annual growth rate approximately $1.2\%$.

  • $2010$: Current.

  • $2050$ Projection (UN Medium Fertility Variant): $9.5$ Billion.

  • $2100$ Projection: $10.9$ Billion.

Population Concerns and Consumption

• Paul Ehrlich's Prediction:

  • Ehrlich famously stated: "The fight to feed everyone is lost. In the 1970s and 1980s, hundreds of millions will die of starvation despite any efforts. At this point, a significant rise in the global death rate is unavoidable." (See textbook pp. $426$-$433$).

• The Ehrlich Equation:

  • $I = PAT$

    • $I$ = Environmental Impact

    • $P$ = Population

    • $A$ = Affluence (consumption per person)

    • $T$ = Technology (impact per unit of consumption)

• Critique of Growth-at-all-costs:

  • UK Philosopher Kate Soper argues that curbing "our addiction to growth" would actually improve our lives.

  • John Stuart Mill in his Principles of Political Economy ($1848$) envisioned a "stationary state" where:

    • "There would be as much scope as ever for all kinds of mental culture, and moral and social progress… for improving the art of living and much more likelihood of it being improved, when minds cease to be engrossed by the art of getting on."

  • The question is posed: Is such a vision regarded as utopian in today's society?

Global Ecological Footprint

• Disparity in Per Capita Footprint (Global Footprint Network):

  • Humanity is currently using resources $21\%$ faster than the Earth's ecosystems can regenerate them.

  • Each person on Earth, on average, consumes resources equivalent to $2.2$ global hectares of land.

  • However, only $1.8$ global hectares per person are biologically productive and available on Earth.

  • This means we are currently using the resources of more than $1.5$ planets.

  • This situation is termed 'Global ecological overshoot'.

• Components of the Ecological Footprint (WWF $2014$ Living Planet Report):

  • The carbon component constitutes more than half of the total global Ecological Footprint.

  • Other significant components include: Fishing grounds, Cropland, Built-up land, Forest products, and Grazing products.

  • The global footprint has steadily increased, exceeding the Earth's capacity around $1970$ and reaching approximately $1.5$ planets by $2010$.

Energy Consumption

• Consumption by Fuel (BP Energy Outlook $2035$ Insights):

  • Projections for $2035$ indicate the following distribution of energy consumption:

    • Oil: $27.5\%$

    • Coal: $26.8\%$

    • Gas: $26.4\%$

    • Hydro: $7.2\%$

    • Renewables: $7.2\%$

    • Nuclear: $4.9\%$

International Concerns Regarding Humanity's Impact

• $1992$: 'The World Scientists' Warning to Humanity' (Union of Concerned Scientists):

  • Stated that "Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course."

  • Warned that current practices seriously risk the future of human society and may alter the living world to an extent where it will be unable to sustain life as we know it.

• $2006$: UN Environment Programme (UNEP) Report:

  • Identified that humans have triggered the worst wave of extinctions since the dinosaurs wiped out $65$ million years ago.

  • Humans are responsible for the sixth major extinction event in Earth's history.

  • A rising human population of $6.5$ billion is destroying the environment.

  • Global demand for biological resources now exceeds the planet's capacity to renew them by $20\%$.

Worrying Predictions for the Future

• Water Scarcity: As many as $7$ billion people in $60$ countries could face water scarcity by $2050$.

• Peak Oil:

  • The global production of petroleum is predicted to decline (and has already shown signs of doing so).

  • Significance of Peak Oil:

    • Approximately $90\%$ of global transportation is fueled by oil.

    • Oil is critical for construction, consumer products, heating, manufacturing, and electronics – all fundamental components of modern industrial society.

    • The World Energy Council estimated that $1/3$ of the world’s oil reserves had already been used up.

• Global Warming Data (Australia):

  • Australia's mean temperature has warmed by approximately $1\;^ ext{o}C$ since $1910$ (CSIRO & BoM, $2016$).

• Sea Ice Outlook (SEARCH $2008$, NASA):

  • The Arctic Ocean is losing sea ice $30$ or more years ahead of glaciologists' projections.

World's Biggest Consumers

• Humans now consume approximately $50\%$ of the products of photosynthesis, and this figure is growing exponentially.

• Humanity aspires to control all sources of energy to support ever-increasing consumption.

• Australia has one of the world's largest ecological footprints per capita, requiring $6.6$ global hectares per person (WWF $2013$).

Growth and Progress: Master Narratives

• These narratives incorporate fundamental, often unquestioned, beliefs:

  • Unwavering faith in scientific and technological innovation as a solution to all problems.

  • The inherent idea of advancement being desirable and inevitable.

  • Development being synonymous with growth.

  • The notion of societies moving from 'primitive' to 'advanced' stages.

  • The belief that being 'richer is safer'.

  • The equation that consumption equals happiness.

• Alternative View: Gross National Happiness (Bhutan):

  • In $1972$, the $4$th King of Bhutan famously stated: "Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product."

Western Linear View of Progress

• The Enlightenment ($17$th – Late $18$th Century):

  • Emerged from intellectual and scientific revolutions.

  • Key beliefs included:

    • Humans could discover the universal laws of development and change.

    • Mathematics would unlock all secrets within the "book of nature."

    • A future "theory of everything" (TOE) would eventually emerge.

    • Science was believed to deliver salvation and immense wealth.

• Development Theory: $4$ Stage View of History:

  • This theory posits that societies progress through distinct stages:

    1. Hunting

    2. Pasturage

    3. Agriculture

    4. Commerce (Industry)

  • Each stage is associated with different sets of morals, customs, ideas, and institutions relating to law, property, and government.

  • This model implicitly sets a universal path for all societies to follow.

Economic Stage Theories

• Karl Marx ($1818$ - $1883$) stages of societal development:

  1. Primitive communism

  2. Feudalism

  3. Capitalism

  4. Socialism

  5. Communism

• W.W. Rostow ($1916$ - $2003$) stages of economic growth:

  1. Traditional Society (limited technology, static)

  2. Preconditions for Take-off (physical infrastructure, social/political elite, commercial exploitation of agriculture/extractive industry)

  3. Take-off (manufacturing sector develops, investment in manufacturing exceeds $10\%$ of national income, modern institutions emerge)

  4. The Drive to Maturity (wider industrial/commercial base, exploitation of comparative advantages in international trade)

  5. Mass Consumption

  6. Post-Industrial

• Shared characteristics of Marx and Rostow's theories:

  • Both are rooted in materialism.

  • Both share a powerful ideology of industrialism.

  • Both believe in an 'end of history' – a final, ideal societal or economic stage.

Evolution as Progress

• Measuring Human Evolution:

  • Human evolution is often measured in terms of continuous progress.

  • The Industrial Revolution was seen as a race for "Survival of the fittest" (term coined by Herbert Spencer in $1851$, predating Darwin's On the Origin of Species in $1859$, though Social Darwinism later emerged from this notion).

• Implications of this view:

  • Human progress is framed with inherent 'winners and losers'.

  • Capitalist society is presented as a 'natural evolution' in the social setting.

  • Social class disparity and poverty are erroneously considered 'natural' and even beneficial outcomes.

  • Humans are perceived as being at the helm, capable of determining their own evolutionary path (e.g., genetic engineering is seen as simply accelerating the rate of evolution).

Underpinning the Pursuit of Progress

• The pursuit of progress, particularly economic growth, is supported by several core beliefs:

  • Unwavering belief in human ingenuity to unlock Nature’s secrets.

  • The conviction that there are no limits to technological innovation.

  • The idea that invention leads to constant improvement in wealth.

  • The assumption of perpetual consumption.

  • The acceptance of an increasing population as standard.

  • The view that environmental loss is an inevitable, if regrettable, consequence of progress.

Is Growth Equivalent to Happiness?

• Critique by Hamilton ($2003$):

  • Despite the "fantastical promises of economic growth," and high sustained growth in the West over $50$ years (leading to significantly increased average real incomes), the majority of people are no more satisfied with their lives than they were before.

Environmental Despotism

• Nature as a Business (Hamilton $2003$:x):

  • The prevailing growth model treats Nature as:

    • "A business in liquidation."

    • A 'free' source of 'Stock' (resources) and 'Sinks' (waste disposal).

    • An "eternal frontier" to be exploited for limitless growth.

  • This raises a crucial question: After this Earth, where do we go?

• Consequences of Growth for Happiness (Hamilton $2003$:x):

  • "Growth not only fails to make people contented; it destroys many of the things that do."

  • "Growth fosters empty consumerism, degrades the natural environment, weakens social cohesion and corrodes character."

  • "Yet we are told, ad nauseam, that there is no alternative."

Moving Forward: The Path to Sustainability

• The only viable future is a sustainable one.

• How to achieve sustainability?

  • Crucially, we must acknowledge that 'the economy' is not an inevitable, immutable force like gravity; it is a human invention.

  • We have allowed these human-made structures to dictate our lives.

  • As Thoreau noted, "Men become the tools, of their tools."

  • The imperative is to look beyond the conventional 'growth' economy towards a 'green' economy (UNEP, $2011$).

• Future discussions will explore environmental philosophies that offer fundamentally different ways of thinking about society and our relationships with each other and the environment.

ENVS1003 - Week 5 Tutorial Notes

This week's discussions thoroughly examined the intricate relationship between economic growth, often spurred by ambitious colonial expansion and resource exploitation, and its profound consequences in the form of environmental degradation. The central theme explored was how human societies, in their persistent pursuit of economic prosperity and the establishment of territorial control, have fundamentally and in unprecedented ways altered the natural world. This critical analysis was enriched by insights drawn from two foundational academic texts:

• McKibben, W. (1990) ‘The End of Nature’, Chapter 2 (pp. 43-84, particularly pp. 47-48):
  This chapter presents a stark exploration of humanity's unparalleled and rapidly accelerating impact on the natural world. McKibben posits that human activities, ranging from industrial emissions and fossil fuel consumption to widespread deforestation and habitat destruction, have become so pervasive and intertwined with natural processes that they have irrevocably transformed Earth's fundamental systems. He argues for a conceptual 'end of nature,' not necessarily in its physical disappearance, but in the cessation of nature existing as an entity separate from human influence. Consequently, natural phenomena and ecological balances are now largely mediated or directly influenced by human decisions and actions, rather than operating independently. This shift carries significant ethical and philosophical implications for our understanding of environmental responsibility and stewardship.

• Wright, R. (2004) ‘The Great Experiment’, Chapter 2 (pp. 29-53):
  This chapter introduces the compelling concept of human civilization as a grand, and often precarious, 'experiment' in large-scale social organization coupled with intensive environmental manipulation. Wright delves into historical patterns, illustrating how numerous past societies and empires, in their quest for growth and expansion (often mirroring colonial impulses for resource acquisition), encountered ecological limits. He examines the rise and fall of these civilizations, frequently linking their trajectories to unsustainable resource utilization—such as soil erosion, deforestation, and water resource depletion—which ultimately contributed to their decline or collapse. The 'experiment' highlights the recurrent challenge of balancing societal development with ecological integrity, underscoring the formidable stakes involved for contemporary human societies currently navigating similar ecological pressures.

This course, particularly the topics around colonialism and its economic impacts, has significantly shaped my understanding of the environment and my relationship to it. Initially, I might have viewed environmental issues as separate from historical socio-political processes, but now I clearly see their deep interconnection.

How has my thinking about the environment and my relationship to it developed throughout the course?

(i) Have topics changed or strengthened my views? How?

The topics have definitely changed my views, especially concerning the origins and justifications of environmental exploitation. Learning about "Colonialism and Economic Growth," particularly the discussion on "Eurocentrism" and how 'indigenous cultures' were portrayed as 'primitive,' completely shifted my perspective. I now understand that Western thought provided an ideological framework for exploiting both people and the environment. This realization that "the economy is a human invention," rather than an immutable force, has fundamentally altered how I perceive economic systems. It suggests we have the agency to redesign them for better environmental outcomes, which is a powerful thought.

My existing concerns about sustainability have been greatly strengthened. The data on the "Global Ecological Footprint," showing humanity using the resources of $1.5$ planets, and the stark warnings from the "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity" ($1992$) or the UNEP's $2006$ report on the sixth extinction event, underscore the urgency I feel about environmental action.

(ii) Were there any surprises or new awareness? How did these transform original thoughts?

One of the biggest surprises was encountering John Stuart Mill's "stationary state" concept from $1848$. I had always associated critiques of relentless growth with more contemporary environmental movements, so learning that such ideas have a long philosophical history was quite impactful. This transformed my original thought that the "growth-at-all-costs" mentality was a relatively modern, unchallenged phenomenon. It shows that alternatives have always been contemplated, even if sidelined.

Another new awareness was how "scientific classification" and the European belief in "stages of progress" were explicitly used to justify colonialism and dominate nature. I previously perceived science as a neutral tool for understanding, but now I see its historical entanglement with power and justification for exploitation. This has made me more critical of how scientific narratives can be used.

(iii) Relate development to specific authors, clips, or class discussions.

Val Plumwood's arguments on "Eurocentrism" deeply resonated with me, especially her point that the Western definition of humanity relied on the 'non-human' – portraying non-European lands and inhabitants as 'empty' or 'underused.' This directly influenced my understanding of how a colonial mindset justified dispossession. The critiques by Hamilton ($2003$) on "Environmental Despotism," where he describes Nature as "a business in liquidation," provided a harsh but accurate metaphor that stuck with me. Similarly, McKibben's 'The End of Nature' challenged me to think about our interconnectedness, making me realize that 'pure' nature, untouched by humans, is essentially a thing of the past.

What concepts challenged me the most and why?

The concept that "consumption equals happiness" challenged me the most. This belief is so pervasive in modern society, constantly reinforced by advertising and economic narratives. However, Hamilton's critique, noting that despite decades of economic growth, the majority of people are "no more satisfied with their lives," severely undermined this belief. It made me question the fundamental drivers of our economic system and the societal pressure to continually consume. The idea from the "Evolution as Progress" section that "Social class disparity and poverty are erroneously considered 'natural' and even beneficial outcomes" also deeply challenged me, as it forced me to confront how seemingly neutral concepts can be twisted to justify inequality and suffering.

How might I apply these new insights into my daily life?

These new insights will definitely provoke behavioral changes in my daily life. Understanding the "Global Ecological Footprint" and Australia's high per capita footprint makes me more conscious about my own consumption patterns. I'm provoked to actively reduce my carbon footprint by making more sustainable choices in transport, energy use, and purchasing. The critique of "consumption equals happiness" also encourages me to seek contentment outside of material goods, focusing more on experiences, relationships, and sustainable practices. I want to challenge the "growth-at-all-costs" mentality in my own decisions. Recognizing that 'the economy' is a human invention empowers me to advocate for and support policies that promote a 'green' economy, rather than passively accepting the status quo. I hope to actively engage in discussions that challenge environmental despotism and promote a sustainable, equitable future.

This course, particularly the topics around colonialism and its economic impacts, has significantly shaped my understanding of the environment and my relationship to it. Initially, I might have viewed environmental issues as separate from historical socio-political processes, but now I clearly see their deep interconnection.