AICE INTERNATIONAL HISTORY REVIEW CHAPTER 1

Empires and the Emergence of World Powers (1870-1919)

Introduction

  • The period between 1870 and 1919 saw the emergence of new world powers and the decline of traditional empires.
    • The decline of empires was caused by economic, political, and social factors.
  • The Industrial Revolution and the rise of nationalism contributed to the emergence of new powers.

Emergence of New World Powers

  • The United States emerged as a world power after the Spanish-American War in 1898.
  • Japan modernized and became a major power in Asia after defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.
  • Germany, under the leadership of Kaiser Wilhelm II, became a major European power and challenged the dominance of Britain and France.

Decline of Traditional Empires

  • The Ottoman Empire, known as the "sick man of Europe," experienced economic and political decline.
  • The Austro-Hungarian Empire faced nationalist movements and internal divisions.
  • The British Empire faced economic challenges and nationalist movements in India and Ireland.
  • The Russian Empire faced social and economic unrest, which led to the Russian Revolution in 1917.

World War I

  • The outbreak of World War I in 1914 marked the end of the old world order and the emergence of new powers.
  • The war led to the collapse of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires.
  • The United States emerged as a dominant world power after the war.

Conclusion

  • The period between 1870 and 1919 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in the world.
  • The emergence of new powers and the decline of traditional empires set the stage for the modern world order.

Monroe Doctrine in 1823

  • What is it?
    • A US foreign policy that stated that any intervention by external powers in the politics of the Americas is a potentially hostile act against the US.
    • It was declared by President James Monroe in his seventh annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823.
  • Why was it issued?
    • The doctrine was issued in response to the perceived threat posed by the European powers, especially Spain, to the newly independent countries of Latin America.
    • The US feared that the European powers would try to re-colonize the region and thereby threaten US security.
  • Key points of the doctrine
    • The US would not interfere in the internal affairs of or the wars between European powers.
    • The US would not interfere in existing European colonies in the Americas.
    • The Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization by any foreign power.
    • Any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the US.
  • Impact of the doctrine
    • The doctrine became a cornerstone of US foreign policy in the Americas.
    • It established the US as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere.
    • It helped to prevent European intervention in the region and thereby contributed to the independence and sovereignty of the Latin American countries.
    • It also set a precedent for US intervention in the affairs of other countries in the future.

Manifest Destiny (1845)

Manifest Destiny was a belief prevalent in the 19th century United States that the country was destined to expand its territory and spread its influence across the continent. It was a term coined by journalist John O'Sullivan in 1845.

Origins

The idea of Manifest Destiny was rooted in the belief of American exceptionalism and the desire for territorial expansion. It was fueled by religious and racial beliefs that the United States was a superior nation and had a divine mission to spread its values and institutions.

Westward Expansion

Manifest Destiny was the driving force behind the westward expansion of the United States. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the Mexican-American War in 1846-1848, and the Oregon Treaty in 1846 were all examples of the United States expanding its territory.

Criticism

Manifest Destiny was criticized by some as a justification for imperialism and the displacement of Native American populations. It was also seen as a way for the United States to gain more power and resources at the expense of other nations.

Legacy

Manifest Destiny played a significant role in shaping the identity and expansion of the United States. It helped to establish the country as a dominant world power and contributed to the growth of American nationalism. However, it also had negative consequences for indigenous populations and contributed to the perpetuation of racial and cultural stereotypes.

The Boer Wars

The Boer Wars were fought between the British Empire and two Boer states, the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. The wars were fought from 1880-1881 and 1899-1902.

Causes

  • Discovery of gold and diamonds in the Boer states
  • British desire to control the region
  • Boer desire for independence and self-governance
  • Cultural and language differences between the Boers and the British

First Boer War (1880-1881)

  • Boers defeated the British in the Battle of Majuba Hill

The Pretoria Convention was signed, granting the Boers self-government

Jameson Raid (1895)

The Jameson Raid was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company (BSAC) to overthrow the Boer government of Transvaal in South Africa.

  • The raid was led by Dr. Leander Starr Jameson, who was the administrator of the BSAC.

Key points about the Jameson Raid:

  • The raid took place on December 29, 1895, and was planned by Cecil Rhodes, the founder of the BSAC, and other British imperialists who wanted to expand their control over South Africa.
  • Jameson and his men crossed the border into Transvaal, hoping to spark a rebellion among the British settlers and the Uitlanders (foreigners) who were unhappy with the Boer government's policies.
  • However, the raid was a disaster from the start. Jameson's men were outnumbered and outgunned by the Boer forces, and they were quickly surrounded and forced to surrender.
  • The raiders were put on trial and sentenced to prison, while Jameson himself was sent back to England to face charges of conspiracy and illegal aggression.
  • The Jameson Raid was a major embarrassment for the British government, which had to distance itself from the raid and condemn it as a violation of international law.
  • The raid also had long-term consequences for South Africa, as it increased tensions between the British and the Boers and helped to pave the way for the Second Boer War (1899-1902).

Overall, the Jameson Raid was a misguided and ill-fated attempt by British imperialists to assert their dominance over South Africa, and it ultimately backfired on them in a big way.

Fashoda Crisis (1898)

  • France and Britain nearly went to war over control of the Sudanese town of Fashoda.
    • The crisis was resolved peacefully
    • France recognized British control of Egypt in exchange for control of Fashoda.
  • The crisis highlighted tensions between the two imperial powers and contributed to the formation of the Entente Cordiale in 1904.

Impact of Fashoda Crisis

The Fashoda Crisis was a diplomatic dispute between France and Britain over control of Sudan in 1898. The crisis had several impacts, including:

  • Increased tensions between France and Britain: The crisis brought the two countries to the brink of war and highlighted their imperialistic ambitions in Africa. It also strained their diplomatic relations for several years.
  • Strengthened British position in Africa: The crisis ultimately resulted in France withdrawing from Sudan, which allowed Britain to consolidate its control over the region. This strengthened Britain's position in Africa and helped it to maintain its dominance over the continent.
  • Boosted French colonial ambitions: Although France lost the Fashoda Crisis, it did not deter its colonial ambitions. Instead, it spurred France to focus on other areas of Africa, such as Morocco and Algeria, and to strengthen its alliances with other European powers.
  • Increased anti-British sentiment in France: The Fashoda Crisis was seen as a humiliation for France and led to a rise in anti-British sentiment in the country. This sentiment was further fueled by Britain's support for the Boers in the Second Boer War, which began just a few years later.
  • Contributed to the outbreak of World War I: The Fashoda Crisis was one of several factors that contributed to the outbreak of World War I. It highlighted the growing tensions between European powers and their imperialistic ambitions, which ultimately led to the devastating conflict.

Second Boer War (1899-1902)

  • British annexation of the Boer states led to war
  • Boers used guerrilla tactics against the British
  • British implemented scorched earth policy, destroying Boer farms and imprisoning civilians in concentration camps
  • Treaty of Vereeniging ended the war, with the Boers losing their independence

Impact

  • Boer republics were incorporated into the British Empire
  • Boer resentment towards the British led to apartheid policies in the 20th century
  • British military tactics and concentration camps influenced future conflicts, such as World War II

Overall, the Boer Wars were a significant event in South African history, shaping the country's political and social landscape for years to come.

Entente Cordiale

  • Entente Cordiale is a series of agreements signed between the United Kingdom and France in 1904.
  • The agreements were aimed at resolving long-standing disputes between the two countries and improving their diplomatic relations.
  • The agreements covered a wide range of issues, including colonial territories, fishing rights, and the status of Egypt and Morocco.
  • The Entente Cordiale was not a formal alliance, but it paved the way for closer cooperation between the two countries in the years leading up to World War I.
  • The Entente Cordiale was significant because it marked a major shift in British foreign policy, which had traditionally been focused on maintaining a balance of power in Europe.
  • The Entente Cordiale was also significant because it helped to isolate Germany diplomatically, which contributed to the tensions that led to World War I.
  • The Entente Cordiale remained in effect until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when Britain and France became formal allies against Germany.

The World Disarmament Conference (1932-34)

  • Held in Geneva, Switzerland
  • Attended by representatives from 60 countries who aimed to reduce military arms and prevent war.
  • Conference failed
    • Due to disagreements between major powers and the rise of fascist regimes.