Review Card 9
Long-Term Causes of World War I in Europe
Nationalism. Nationalism is pride in one’s nation, or the belief that one’s ethnic group should belong to its own nation-state. Nationalist feelings increased the rivalries between the “Great Powers” of Europe and encouraged ethnic groups in multi-national empires to struggle for their own nation-states.
Economic Rivalries and Imperialism of the “Great Powers” increased spirit of competition and conflict.
Entangling alliances. An alliance is an agreement between nations to act together, especially if attacked. By 1914, Europe was divided into two large alliances: Germany and Austria vs. Russia, France, and Great Britain. Any conflict between nations in these opposing alliances threatened to draw in all the others.
Militarism. Glorification of the military, military planning, and arms races played key roles in pushing Europeans to war. Generals felt they had to be the first to mobilize and attack
“Flashpoint” of World War I
Flashpoint: the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on June 28, 1914, by Serb nationalists.
Austria invaded Serbia to teach the Serbs a lesson.
This brought Russia and the other Great Powers into the conflict because of their alliances. Germany invaded France by marching through Belgium, ensuring British entry into the war.
Fighting in Europe
New technology employed in the war prevented either side from quickly defeating the other.
Trench warfare. The use of machine guns led soldiers to dig trenches (ditches or long holes). The trenches were separated by barbed wire and land mines known as “no man’s land.” Heavy artillery and chemical warfare (poison gas) were sometimes used. This led to a stalemate or deadlock. Neither side could win the war. Each side had to outlast the other.
Naval Blockade. Each side now tried to starve the other into submission. A British blockade of the North Sea prevented foreign arms and food from reaching Germany. In retaliation, Germany used submarines (U-boats) to prevent supply ships from reaching Britain. For protection, British merchant ships sailed in convoys (groups protected by battle ships).
Airplanes. Used for reconnaissance and “dogfights.” They did not play a major role as they did in later wars.
Why Americans Eventually Went to War on the Side of Britain and France
Cultural Ties: Americans had a common language and history with Britain.
Allied Propaganda and German Atrocities: The German invasion of neutral Belgium led to exaggerated stories of German atrocities—often false—which shocked Americans.
Isolation of the Central Powers: Because of the British naval blockade, the Central Powers were isolated from the United States. Because Americans only heard the British side of the story, they grew more favorable to the Allies. U.S. trade with Germany dropped to almost nothing while the United States became the main provider of arms, food and supplies to the Allies.
Zimmerman Telegram (March 1917): Germany promised the return of New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas to Mexico, if Mexico allied itself with Germany. The publication of this telegram (a form of long-distance communication) in U.S. newspapers outraged the public.
Submarine Warfare:
German Submarine Warfare
British Blockade: The British blockade of Germany led to German submarine warfare against ships bringing supplies to Britain. German submarines were too small to announce themselves in advance of attack or to carry survivors. This meant submarine attacks usually led to a great loss of life at sea.
Lusitania: In May 1915, a German submarine sank the Lusitania, a British passenger ship. The attack led to over a thousand deaths, including 128 Americans and 94 children, and greatly stirred anti-German feelings among Americans.
Sussex Pledge: Another German submarine sank the Sussex, a French passenger ship in 1916. Germany pledged not to sink any more ocean liners or merchant ships without warning or rescuing survivors.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: In January 1917, Germany declared “unrestricted submarine warfare.” They announced all ships in a zone around Britain would be sunk without warning. German leaders felt they could defeat the Allies before the United States entered the war. The sinking of more U.S. merchant ships in 1917 combined with the Zimmerman Telegram finally led to a U.S. declaration of war on Germany. Wilson called for intervention not only to protect freedom of the seas but as a crusade to make the “world safe for democracy.”
America at War
Mobilization: President Wilson appointed General Pershing to command the million-man American Expeditionary Force (AEF). This was the military force that the United States sent to Europe.
Selective Service Act required men (chosen by lot) to serve in the military. This was also known as the “draft.”
Conscientious Objectors (COs): Those who refused to fight on moral or religious grounds. They still had to serve in noncombatant roles, such as ambulance drivers, caring for the wounded, working on farms, or as firefighters. Some were imprisoned and treated unfairly.
Committee of Public Information: This federal agency was responsible for propaganda (one-sided, emotional information) in favor of the war effort. It created posters, pamphlets, billboards, press releases, newsreels, and anti-German films.
The War-Time Economy
The U.S. government collaborated with Big Business and organized labor to further the war effort:
War Industries Board: This federal agency
organized and managed wartime manufacturing.
Food Administration: Oversaw the production
and distribution of food.
Fuel Administration: Regulated coal and gasoline,
and called for voluntary conservation.
Railroad Administration: Nationalized the
railways during the war.
War Labor Board: Mediated disputes between
owners and workers.
Paying for the War
Total war costs were $30 billion—30
times the total revenues of the federal
government in 1916.
Higher taxes on the wealthy raised 1/3 of
the war costs.
War Bonds. The rest of the war was
financed through borrowing. War bonds
were government certificates sold to the
public which paid a low interest rate. The
national debt rose from $1 billion in 1916
to $20 billion by the war’s end.
One-third of this money was lent to the
Allies. The United States turned from
being a “debtor” to a “creditor” nation.
Civil Rights on the Home Front
The home front refers to events in the United States during the war. During the war, individual rights were restricted in the interests of national security:
Espionage Act of 1917 allowed government censorship of the mails and imprisonment of those who interfered with the draft.
Sedition Act of 1918 made it a crime to use “disloyal” language attacking the government. Dissenters opposing the war faced imprisonment.
These wartime restrictions were upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court:
Schenck v. U.S. (1919)—speech can be restricted whenever a “clear and present danger” is evident.
Debs v. U.S. and Abrams v. U.S. (1919)—also upheld restrictions on speech.
U.S. Women and Minorities during World War I
When men went off to war, women, African Americans, and other minorities filled the gap by taking jobs in factories, farms, and railroads.
Women in World War I: At the time war was declared, many women were campaigning for a constitutional amendment granting them the right to vote. The National American Woman Suffrage Association and its members supported the war effort by selling war bonds, knitting socks, cooking meatless dinners, joining the Red Cross, and serving as nurses. The National Woman’s Party opposed the war.
German Americans: Great prejudice was shown against German Americans. More than 4,000 were imprisoned. One German American was attacked by a mob and killed. Most German cultural programs were discontinued.
Native Americans: American Indians enlisted in World War I and fought bravely in Europe.
Jewish Americans: Despite prejudice against them, a great number enlisted. The American Jewish community raised funds to help people in Europe.
African Americans in World War I: African-American leaders urged their followers to fight for freedom and democracy abroad so they could achieve them more rapidly at home. Over 100,000 joined the war in Europe, although they were forced to serve in segregated units. African Americans were also recruited in large numbers for jobs in cities in the Northeast and Midwest.
Hispanics in World War I: Large numbers crossed the Mexican border to work on U.S. farms. Puerto Ricans were given U.S. citizenship and drafted. Many Latinos, like Marcelino Serna, fought with great bravery.
Asian Americans: Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans, and Filippino Americans enlisted in the armed services even though they often faced discrimination at home.
The Fourteen Points
In January 1918, Wilson announced America’s war aims in a speech to Congress with his “Fourteen Points.”
These reflected his view that the war was a crusade for democracy. The Fourteen Points included:
self-determination for the peoples of Europe
reduced armaments
freedom of the seas
an end to secret diplomacy
equal trade terms
creation of the League of Nations
Allied Victory in 1918
The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) gave the Allies overwhelming superiority. The German army surrendered in November 1918. An armistice (ceasefire) was signed and the fighting stopped.
Treaty of Versailles and Related Treaties
Treaty terms were determined by the Big Four: Britain, France, Italy and the United States.
In the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost territory to France and Poland, and lost all of its colonies.
Germany lost its navy, while its once powerful army was reduced to the size of a police force.
Germans were forced to sign the “War Guilt” clause, accepting the blame for starting the war. On these grounds, they were also required to pay huge reparations (payment for damages) to the Allied victors.
Austria-Hungary was divided into several smaller national states.
The Sultan was overthrown and Turkey became a republic. The Ottoman Empire lost most of its territories
in the Middle East. These territories became mandates of Britain and France.
A League of Nations, a new organization of nations, was established to prevent aggression and protect the peace.
The U.S. Senate Rejects the Treaty of Versailles
Americans were generally disappointed with the war’s outcome.
Many Americans retreated into isolation.
The Congressional elections of 1918 reflected this disappointment and gave control of the Senate to Republicans. Republicans feared the League of Nations would commit Americans to future wars. President Wilson ordered his supporters to reject the Treaty of Versailles rather than accept it with Republican changes.
The United States never joined the League of Nations; instead, it signed a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921.