Notes on International Relations Theories

Studying Advice

This method involves identifying the main thesis (contention) or the core question an article aims to answer, sometimes by turning the title into a question.

Hedley Bull: The Anarchical Society

Hedley Bull disputes Hobbes' notion of international relations as a perpetual state of war, arguing that an "anarchical society" exists. This society is characterized by common norms and a notion of morality among states, differentiating it from a purely Hobbesian state of nature by suggesting that a "social element" imposes restraints, not perpetual conflict.

Alexander Wendt: Anarchy is What States Make of It

Wendt's thesis is that anarchy (absence of common power) doesn't inherently lead to a Hobbesian state of war. States can escape this through a "mutual process of signaling" their intentions and forming understandings as threats or non-threats. However, this process faces challenges: states can lie, signals can be misinterpreted (e.g., peace gestures seen as weakness), intentions can change, and the relative nature of power creates inherent competition that signaling alone cannot banish.

Francis Fukuyama: The End of History

Fukuyama's "end of history" posited the end of ideological competition concerning how to best organize society, with liberal democracy emerging as the universally "most satisfying" system for human beings. This satisfaction stems from fulfilling the human desire for "recognition" (Hegel) or "freedom" (Bush). However, history has not ended due to several factors: the practical feasibility of democracy is not universal (it takes time and aptitude), some prioritize "order" over "freedom" (Dostoevsky, Fromm, Hobbes), and varying human desires for "recognition" (not just equality, but superiority) can lead to collective competition among nation-states, not universal consensus.

Samuel Huntington: The Clash of Civilizations

Huntington rebutted Fukuyama, arguing that future global conflicts would occur not between regimes or ideologies, but between civilizations. He specifically warned of clashes between the West and the Islamic world, and the West and China, which he believed better explained events like 9/11 and ongoing geopolitical tensions.