American Revolution: Campaigns, Hardship, and European Alliances (1776-1778)

Document Assignment One

Open Book Assignment: The first document assignment, "Doc Assignment One," is due today. It is listed as a quiz but is open book, requiring students to refer to the Declaration of Independence while working on it.
Purpose: Not a memory test, but a way to immerse students in a primary document of the period and earn good scores.

The American Revolution: Early Battles and Winter Hardship (1776-1777)

The Aftermath of Independence

Declared but Not Won: The American colonies declared independence but still had to fight to win and guarantee it.
British Counter-Attack: Britain would strike back, leaving Boston but returning with more men, sailing for New York City.

British Campaign for New York City

Target: The British sought to occupy New York City, the second-largest city in the $13$ colonies.
Loyalist Expectation: They anticipated finding many Loyalists (those loyal to Britain) there, as Americans were split among Patriots, Loyalists, and neutrals.
Washington's Response: George Washington's army marched south to fight for control of New York City.

Battle of Long Island

Encounter: Washington's army met the British in the Battle of Long Island, a battlefield now largely covered by New York City.
British Victory: The British successfully outflanked Washington, forcing a retreat after a stiff fight.
Precarious Position: Being on an island with British naval control of waterways put Washington's army in a very dangerous, trapped position.
Successful Retreat: Washington's army managed to extricate itself by ferrying troops across the water from Long Island to Manhattan Island.
Series of Defeats: This marked a major defeat for Washington, followed by several more as the British drove them out of New York and New Jersey.
Rough Summer and Fall of $1776$ : A very difficult period for Washington's army, being herded across New Jersey.
Crossing the Delaware: Washington eventually got his men on boats and retreated across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, using the river as a natural barrier.

Winter Quarters and Washington's Desperate Plan

Traditional European Warfare: In $18^{th}$ century European warfare, fighting typically ceased in winter due to wet, muddy dirt roads making troop movement difficult. Armies would settle into winter quarters until spring.
Washington's Dilemma: Washington knew he could not simply wait out the winter because the American cause had ended the year badly, and his army was shrinking.
- Militia Composition: His army was largely composed of militia, who disliked fighting far from home and typically signed on for limited terms of service.
- Expiring Enlistments: Many enlistments were set to end at the close of $1776$ , meaning he would have a much smaller army in $1777$ .
Need for Victory: Washington decided he needed a desperate victory to boost morale and demonstrate hope for the American cause before his army dissolved.
British Complacency: The British were content to stay in winter quarters, placing garrisons in New Jersey towns to hold captured territory.

Battle of Trenton

Washington's Plan: Washington planned to row his army back across the Delaware River and launch a surprise attack on Trenton, New Jersey.
Hessian Garrison: Trenton was garrisoned by Hessian soldiers, German troops hired by the British from various small German states and principalities.
- American Resentment: Americans highly resented the use of foreign mercenaries, a point highlighted in Jefferson's Declaration of Independence.
- Hessian Motivation: While common Hessian soldiers might not have had a choice in being drafted, their princes were mercenary. The British also warned Hessians that Americans hated them, fostering a belief that no mercy should be shown.
- Formidable Soldiers: Hessians were formidable, trained to the high Prussian standard of warfare.
The Crossing:
- Bitterly Cold Night: The crossing was long and bitterly cold, resulting in the deaths of two American soldiers from exposure.
- Delayed Attack: The delay meant the attack occurred on December $26^{th}$ , not Christmas Day.
Washington Crossing the Delaware (Painting by Emmanuel Leutze):
- Iconic Image: This famous painting depicts Washington's crossing.
- Artistic Liberties/Inaccuracies: Generations have noted errors:
  - Ice: Likely sheets of ice, not the dramatic icebergs depicted.
  - River: The river looks more like the Rhine, as Leutze was German and likely hadn't seen the Delaware.
  - Boat: A "rinky-dink" rowboat is shown, but larger Durham boats (designed for hauling iron ore) were actually used.
  - Flag: The Betsy Ross flag depicted was probably not present.
  - Washington's Stance: Washington is shown standing heroically, which would be dangerous in a small boat. However, it's possible he was standing on a raft (shown in the background with horses), which is stable, as horses and guns were also transported.
Battle Outcome:
- Surprise Attack: The Hessians were not drunk from Christmas, but their commander was not expecting the attack.
- Lopsided Victory: Washington's army suffered only two wounded soldiers.
- Hessian Losses: They inflicted more casualties on the Hessians and captured a significant number of them, along with their weaponry, cannons, and munitions.
- Swift Retreat: Washington quickly retreated back to the safe side of the river.

Battle of Princeton

Follow-up Attack: Washington decided to strike again while morale was high, launching another attack across the Delaware River.
Encounter: This time, he encountered British Redcoats (not just Hessians) at Princeton, New Jersey.
John Trumbull Painting: The painting "The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton" depicts intense hand-to-hand fighting, with soldiers often shown fending off bayonet strikes. Washington is depicted riding into the thick of the fray.
Washington's Bravery: Washington personally rode to the front of his faltering line to rally his troops, placing himself between two lines of musket fire. Miraculously, he was untouched by bullets, leading to the belief he "cannot be killed in battle."
Casualty: General Hugh Mercer, a friend of Washington's, was unhorsed and bayoneted, dying several days later.
Victory: Washington secured another battlefield victory against the British, a "one-two punch."
Don Troiani Rendering: A modern rendering also depicts Washington bravely leading his men.
Parody Painting: A parody exists, showing Patriots as Jedi and British as Sith, with Washington wielding a lightsaber.

Significance of Trenton and Princeton

Moral Victories: These battles significantly boosted American morale and kept the Patriot spirit alive.
Hope for the Cause: They demonstrated that the Patriot war effort still had hope.
Strategic Importance: When analyzing battles, consider their significance: Did they help win the war? What factors contributed to the American victory?

The British Campaign of 1777$: A Divided Strategy

General John Burgoyne's Plan

Goal: Burgoyne believed he had a plan to end the revolution by controlling the Hudson River from the North.
"Divide and Conquer": He planned to march south from Canada with one army, expecting General Sir William Howe to move north along the Hudson. The aim was to seize the river, cut off New England (seen as the most rebellious region) from the other colonies, and then pacify the remaining colonies.

General Sir William Howe's Divergent Plan

Alternative Strategy: Howe believed he had a better use for his army.
Targeting Philadelphia: He sailed most of his troops south, up Chesapeake Bay, with the intention of marching overland to capture Philadelphia, the largest city and capital of the 13 $colonies (where the Continental Congress met).</li><li>European Warfare Precedent: In European warfare, capturing the capital often signaled the end of a war, as seen with the fall of Quebec in the French and Indian War.</li></ul><h5 id="d213d12c-f658-4ca7-acd5-668fa23f3d65" data-toc-id="d213d12c-f658-4ca7-acd5-668fa23f3d65" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Battles for Philadelphia</h5><ul><li>Battle of Brandywine Creek (September$ 11^{th} $):<ul><li>Washington's Defense: Washington positioned his army behind Brandywine Creek, using the water body as a defensive barrier.</li><li>British Outflanking: Howe once again successfully outflanked Washington's army.</li><li>American Retreat: After a hard-fought battle, Washington was forced to retreat.</li><li>Abandonment of Philadelphia: Washington's army could no longer safely hold Philadelphia, abandoning it to the British.</li><li>Continental Congress: The Congress packed up and moved to Lancaster, Pennsylvania.</li><li>Embarrassing Defeat: A loss of a major city with resources and access to the sea was a defeat for the Patriots, though not necessarily war-ending.</li></ul></li><li>Germantown (October):<ul><li>Washington's Counter-Attack: Washington launched a surprise attack against the British army in Germantown, a Philadelphia suburb.</li><li>Challenge: The attack, coming out of a fog, was too complicated, leading to a breakdown in coordination.</li><li>American Defeat: The British rallied, and it resulted in a defeat for Washington.</li></ul></li><li>European Observation: Despite Washington losing his capital, his subsequent surprise attack at Germantown was seen as impressive by European powers, demonstrating he was still in the fight and not giving up.</li></ul><h4 id="b0be62ef-cfe4-4b60-b95d-66784eb444f1" data-toc-id="b0be62ef-cfe4-4b60-b95d-66784eb444f1" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Battle of Saratoga: A Turning Point</h4><ul><li>Location: Fought in the fields and forests of Upstate New York, this was the decisive battle of Burgoyne's northern campaign.</li><li>British Line Cracking: During a critical point, the British line was on the verge of breaking, with heavy casualties among men and officers.</li><li>General Simon Fraser: A British general, he was actively rallying and inspiring his men, holding the line together.</li><li>American Riflemen:<ul><li>Smoothbore Muskets vs. Rifles: Most soldiers on both sides used smoothbore muskets in traditional lines of battle. However, some American forces included riflemen.</li><li>Rifle Characteristics: Rifles, with spiral grooves (rifling) cut into the barrel, impart a spin on the bullet, providing greater gyroscopic stability and making them far more accurate and longer-ranged than muskets (like a perfect spiral in football compared to a knuckleball in baseball).</li><li>Loading Speed: Rifles were slower to load in the$ 18^{th} $century, requiring the ball to be wrapped in a patch and pushed down the barrel, making them specialist weapons rather than standard issue.</li><li>Sharpshooters/Snipers: American riflemen, led by Colonel Daniel Morgan, included sharpshooters who sometimes climbed into trees.</li></ul></li><li>Timothy Murphy's Shot: Legend states that Daniel Morgan directed Timothy Murphy, positioned in a tree, to target General Fraser. Despite Fraser being a moving target about$ 200 $yards away, Murphy, after a couple of misses, successfully shot Fraser in the midsection.</li><li>Fraser's Fate: Simon Fraser was mortally wounded and died of his injuries, a potential turning point in the battle.</li><li>British Surrender: The British lost the Battle of Saratoga and found themselves cut off without a clear avenue of retreat. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire army to the Americans.</li></ul><h5 id="836f42a4-b9a4-4322-a343-ec83def1187d" data-toc-id="836f42a4-b9a4-4322-a343-ec83def1187d" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">The Surrender of General Burgoyne (Painting by John Trumbull)</h5><ul><li>Peaceful Scene: Trumbull's painting depicts the peaceful surrender ceremony.</li><li>$ 18^{th} $Century Pomp: Such ceremonies involved specific rules and pomp, especially among officers.</li><li>Symbolic Sword Exchange: The key moment of surrender was the surrendering general handing over his sword to the winning general. The magnanimous gesture was for the winning general to return the sword, respecting the loser's rank and status as an honorable prisoner.</li><li>Key Figures:<ul><li>General Burgoyne: Shown in his red coat.</li><li>Colonel Daniel Morgan: Dressed as a rifleman.</li><li>General Horatio Gates: The central American general accepting the surrender, often remembered as the hero of Saratoga, though much credit should go to field commanders.</li><li>Benedict Arnold: A brave and successful general who played a crucial role in Saratoga but is conspicuously absent from the painting and historical narratives due to his later status as "the most notorious traitor in American history."<ul><li>Arnold's Grievances: He later felt unrecognized and mistreated, leading him to accept an offer from the British to switch sides.</li><li>Significance of his Treason: His betrayal was deeply resented because he was a very able and heroic American general and a bona fide Patriot war hero before he defected.</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><h5 id="eba2f369-5ee9-4f04-a180-85b9bab430bc" data-toc-id="eba2f369-5ee9-4f04-a180-85b9bab430bc" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">The Decisive Impact of Saratoga</h5><ul><li>Capture of Field Army: This was a significant victory as a whole British army was captured, removing those soldiers from the fighting permanently (as prisoners or paroled individuals).</li><li>French Alliance: Saratoga was a decisive battle because it helped bring France into the war as America's formal ally.<ul><li>European Rivalries: The Continental Congress sought to leverage Britain's European rivals (especially those who lost to Britain in previous wars).</li><li>Monetary and Material Aid: The prospect of French monetary aid, weapons, uniforms, and a military alliance (actual troops) was a potential game-changer.</li><li>Benjamin Franklin's Diplomacy: Men like Benjamin Franklin were already working in Europe to secure support.</li><li>$ 1777 $Climax: France, Spain, and the Netherlands were observing, willing to join if America had a real chance of winning. Saratoga's stunning victory convinced them.</li></ul></li><li>Game-Changer: The French alliance, especially the French Navy and army, played a decisive role in the Revolutionary War. Some historians argue American victory would have been impossible without it.</li><li>Global Conflict: Britain effectively faced another global war, needing to defend its colonies worldwide, although it would largely fare well in other theaters, losing only the$ 13 $American colonies.</li></ul><h4 id="0990be3e-a1d4-4f12-b00d-9ac363f0c407" data-toc-id="0990be3e-a1d4-4f12-b00d-9ac363f0c407" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">The Winter at Valley Forge (1777-1778)</h4><ul><li>Washington's Position: After Germantown, Washington marched his army to Valley Forge, outside Philadelphia, to observe and contain the British army, preventing them from maneuvering.</li><li>An "Experience," Not a Battle: Valley Forge is famous as an enduring experience for Washington's army, not a battle.</li><li>Harsh Conditions:<ul><li>Wet Winter: While not the coldest, it was a particularly wet winter with persistent "freeze and thaw" cycles, leading to rot, disease, and suffering.</li><li>Chronic Shortages: The army suffered severe shortages of food, adequate clothing, and shoes. Many soldiers were barefoot, leaving "little pink footprints in the snow."</li></ul></li><li>Economic Challenges:<ul><li>Continental Dollars: The primary reason for suffering was the poor value of the Continental Congress's paper money (Continental Dollars).</li><li>Lack of Capital: The U.S. government struggled to raise hard currency (gold/silver).</li><li>Inflation: The government's temptation to print more money led to severe inflation, devaluing the currency ("not worth a Continental dollar").</li><li>Supply Issues: Farmers were unwilling to accept the depreciated paper money for supplies, despite food being available. Washington often had to confiscate goods, offering essentially worthless paper in return.</li></ul></li><li>Casualties and Resilience:<ul><li>Washington lost$ 1/10 $of his soldiers that winter, primarily to disease or desertion.</li><li>However, the remaining$ 9/10$$ who survived emerged as a better, more efficient army.

Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben: The Drillmaster

European Volunteer: Steuben, a former staff officer and captain in the Prussian army, was one of many European officers who offered their services to the Americans, motivated by fortune, idealism, or both.
Credentials: He came with strong credentials, having served under Frederick the Great of Prussia, known for his military genius.
Unpaid Service: He initially offered his services to Washington without pay, promising to demonstrate his value.
Prussian Discipline: Steuben's primary value was to drill and train Washington's army.
- "German Efficiency": Prussian military traditions exemplified discipline and efficiency.
- American Mindset: Steuben noted the difference in American soldiers, who always wanted to know "why" (e.g., why they were drilling in the snow), unlike Prussian soldiers who simply obeyed.
- Language Barrier: Though he spoke German and French, he struggled with English and would often curse in German/French, then demand his interpreter translate the curses into English.
Training Regimen:
- Standardization: He streamlined and simplified existing drill manuals, creating a single, uniform "drill book to rule us all."
- "Train the Trainers": He first personally trained a group of sergeants from different units, who then returned to train their own men using the new system.
Transformation of the Army: By the end of winter, Washington's army emerged from Valley Forge as a "lean, mean fighting machine" – a well-drilled, disciplined force, much like the British army Washington admired.

Continental Soldiers vs. Militia

Militia: Local, part-time soldiers who disliked serving far from home, had limited enlistment terms (many left at the end of the year), and were less inclined to face British bayonets in open field combat.
Continental Soldiers: Enlisted for longer periods (three, five years, or the duration of the war). Longer terms allowed for higher training standards, leading to veteran, experienced, and reliable troops who formed the core of the American army.
Steuben's Impact: Steuben's training primarily focused on these Continental soldiers, making them highly effective.
Steuben's Legacy: He became one of Washington's most trusted subordinates and top generals by the end of the war, commanding troops in the field.

Marquis de Lafayette

Trusted Subordinate: Another key trusted subordinate of Washington.
French Nobleman and Idealist: A young French nobleman, he was a political idealist deeply inspired by the ideas of liberty and the rights of man, offering his support to the American cause.
"Son" Figure: Lafayette became like a son to Washington and was a key division commander by the war's end.

Iconic Imagery of Valley Forge

Washington's Headquarters: The stone house where Washington and his staff stayed.
Log Huts: Reconstructions depict the typical log huts sheltering the soldiers.