Texas Government Final Exam

Political Parties in TX

Background
1. Definition
  1. A group of people, however loosely organized, that seek to control the government
  2. A political party implies organization, institutions, chapters (local, regional, national).
  3. And maybe the party in government (party caucus).
  4. They may be weak, minimal, or very strong and maximized, highly institutionalized.
  5. Political parties want to be the government, they want to govern. This separates organized interests from political parties, as organized interests want to influence government, not be it.
    1. In a representative democracy, this happens through contesting elections.
  6. In a political party, there's a likemindedness in ideologology with shared values, beliefs, and policy positions.
2. Functions - Parties serve a number of functions
  1. Recruit candidates for office
    1. Most people are not willing to volunteer or step up for races
    2. Political parties look for notable people on a school board level, city council, etc.
  2. Nominate candidates for office
    1. Texas primarily uses the primary to elect candidates to the ballot.
  3. Train and equip nominees and candidates
    1. Teach them how to fundraise
    2. Teach how to work with PACs and SuperPACs and organized interests
    3. Teach how to advertise
    4. How to organize their campaign
    5. Fill out financing reports, file with the Texas ethics committee.
  4. Mobilize voters
    1. To get voters energized and connected with a campaign during an election, making sure their voters turn out on election day.
  5. Serve as a linkage mechanism between voters and government
    1. Party identification, heuristic = information shortcuts
    2. Gives voters a sense their voice has a purpose and will make a difference
  6. Organize the government
    1. After an election is over with, it is the purpose of political parties to organize the government. This is where the party caucus comes in.
    2. Structures the vote to get a bill out of the chamber.
    3. Party becomes a mechanism to link the two chambers of congress, as well as the governor.
    4. Helps overcome/circumvent separation of powers. It gets bills through the chamber faster. It gives chambers and branches of government something in common.
Why Texas Pol. Parties are weak
1. History of Party Competition (Or lack thereof)
  1. Republic of Texas
    1. No political parties, instead, there are individual campaigns by candidates based upon charismatic appeal.
    2. It’s about personality, not substance.
    3. This teaches Texans that political parties are not important or not needed, and if we did have political parties they wouldn’t be that critical
  2. Texas entry into the United States in 1845
    1. The democratic party is the dominant party
      1. It is pro slavery
    2. The Whig party is collapsing
    3. Many Texans just join the democrats because it is the dominant party
  3. Civil War
    1. Southern states did not secede because of states rights, but because of slavery.
    2. Texas is a slave state, in the Civil War, the democratic party is a pro-slavery party
    3. While the republican party is pro abolition.
    4. For most Texans, they join the democratic party.
  4. Post Civil War + Reconstruction (1870s-1950s)
    1. Most Texans overwhelmingly back the Democratic party.
    2. Republicans are limited to African American voters and German Hill Country voters.
    3. Democratic party is still overwhelmingly dominant in TX.
    4. This begs the question: How relevant are political parties?
      1. This period of dominance by democrats leads to no need for strong political parties in Texas
  5. 1970s-1980s Shift of Texas to Republican
    1. African Americans begin to align w/ Democrats because the national Democratic party becomes very pro civil rights.
    2. There was a decided shift at the national level that was fought against by Democrats in the south.
    3. By the late 70s, Republicans made an appeal based upon: low taxes and small government to produce economic growth and prosperity. In doing so, this rising tide of economic growth and prosperity is going to benefit all Texans
  6. 2000s + Republican control/dominance
    1. We revert back to a 1 party Texas
    2. We’ve just switched the name of the party
    3. This history suggests to Texans that political parties are weak, and not useful to the government process.
2. Political Culture
  1. Individualistic → human nature bad
    1. Government is a necessary evil, something we have to restrain to protect our rights.
    2. Therefore, Texans do not trust political institutions, including political parties
    3. If we don’t trust political parties, are we likely to associate with them? Are we likely to have strong, institutional, maximized political parties? Or weak political parties
  2. Traditionalistic → human nature bad
    1. Government is meant to make humans good
    2. Dislike political parties, if we have some, we really only want one. That party does not need to be strong, but do the things we need it to do.
    3. Government is meant to have the best of the best to make citizens better, political parties just introduce more “dumb” or inefficient people into our government, making the government bad.
3. Political Geography
  1. The size of our state and the spread of Texas’ population, means that well organized, highly institutionalized, strong political parties are not going to occur in Texas, it would be very difficult.
  2. Texas never develops political party machines, so the political parties have difficulties delivering votes on election day and have problems rewarding their voters' jobs and government contracts. Unlike states like Illinois who have one homebase for their political machine, that being Chicago
4. Use of Primary Elections
  1. < 1920s → Party conventions + state organizations controlled nominations of candidates.
  2. Progressives of the 1920s → wanted to open this up to democratic nominations.
  3. Open primaries began being used in the 1960s-70s.
  4. Being a democratic or a republican becomes messier, the parties lose control over what it means.
  5. The parties also lose control over who their candidates are. If the party is changed by a candidate labeled by it, the political party is weak.
5. Emergence of PACs and SuperPACs
  1. This weakens political parties more
    1. Candidates no longer need the political party for campaign contributions/funds

Political Parties in TX

Theories of Pol. Parties
1. Responsible Party Model - This is less based on American politics and more worldwide politics
  1. This comes to us from political scientist Kay Lawson, lays out what we know about how political parties behave.
  2. Political parties offer clear, distinct platforms or programs to voters during an election.
    1. They don’t hide or grey what they stand for, they’re very clear and distinct about their beliefs
  3. The candidates from that party pledge themselves to the party’s platform, regardless of their personal beliefs. For every item that is mentioned on a party platform, the candidate will be 100% behind that platform.
    1. In America, we reward candidates that buck the party leadership. We like independent thinking.
  4. Voters choose a political party based upon the promises and pledges in the platform. As the voter is figuring out what party to vote for, they review the party’s promises and make their choice based on that.
    1. Americans typically vote for people, less party. Most Americans do not read the party platform.
  5. The winning party forms the majority and they enact their platform by passing bills into law.
    1. This is difficult in America because we have checks and balances and separation of powers. This does not work if we give one party control of the legislature and one party control of the justice system, etc.
    2. If these bills are a success = political party assumes responsibility
      1. We promised you to do X, we did X, and it has made life better for you
    3. If it is a failure = political party assumes responsibility
      1. The political party in power assumes responsibility for its failures.
      2. In America, the majority party often blames the minority party for policy failures.
  6. The minority party assumes the role of the “responsible critic”, meaning it points out problems or issues in the majority party’s policies, bills, and programs they enact, and it offers real alternatives.
    1. Americans often don’t do this, they pout, shout, and do anything but have a direct dialogue. It’s because we reward this behavior. We don’t reward responsible critics in America.
  7. The voter has another role to play aside from picking the party, the voter will reward the majority party for success through reelection.
    1. They punish failure by voting them out of office and replacing the majority party with the minority or some other party.
  8. Although we don’t do this in America, this system looks a lot better than what we have. Americans would like this to be a true interpretation of our political system.
Electoral Competition Model
1. This comes from political scientist Anthony Downs.
2. Assume:
  1. Political parties seek to win elections.
    1. If you want to change things, control the government, you cannot do that if you do not win elections as a political party.
  2. To win elections, political parties attempt to maximize votes.
    1. To do this, they need to appeal to as many voters as possible.
  3. Thus, political parties are pragmatic (behave in such a way to adapt and change/be flexible).
    1. If you refuse to adapt your policies to appeal to more voters, you will not win elections.
  4. The ability of a political party to be pragmatic (flexible) is a function of the ideological distribution of voters.
  5. If you want to win an election, the most voters are located in the middle (moderates).
  6. What happens when republicans decide to be very ideological, democrats will end up winning the election.

Median Voter Theory - Given that the U.S. electorate is distributed as a standard normal distribution curve—candidates and political parties will tend to locate at/or close to the median voter (moderates). We have an equilibrium point for each political party. This assumes the ideological distribution of voters is standard normal, with more voters on the moderate (middle)

Downs model helps us know the # of diff. Political parties in a system
How pragmatic or flexible those political parties are
How ideologically or rigid those political parties are.
The more parties you have, the less flexible, pragmatic, and more ideological each party is. In America, we have very flexible, and less ideological political parties because most voters are in the middle.
This data that is surrounding the median voter theorem is really good about explaining things within the years 1950s-2008. However, from 2008-2016 the curve began to flatten out with more people on either wing, and less voters in the middle.
- 2016+, there's a lot of data stating that there are less people in the middle and more people on either wing now. Donald Trump shifts the republican party to the right. The progressive wing also becomes higher to the left. We have polarized these political parties, these parties are merely responding to us. If we want to go back to moderate politics, we have to change.

Local Govt in TX

Basics
1. Types
  1. Counties
  2. Cities
  3. School Districts
  4. Special Purpose Districts
    1. Community Colleges - Unlike 4 year universities which are state entities, community colleges are operated by citizens in their district.
    2. Ports/Airport Authorities - Some ports and airports operate as a local government.
    3. Hospital Districts
    4. Municipal Utility District - A local government that’s not a city or county that provides trash collection, water, sewage collection, etc.
    5. Texas does not have township governments
2. Constitutional Foundations
  1. U.S. Constitution
    1. Only recognizes 2 levels of government - Local governments, under the U.S. constitution are not recognized
      1. U.S. National Government
      2. 50 state governments.
    2. Dillion’s Rule - All local government’s, whether they are cities, counties, school districts, are creatures of the state governments. Which means that state laws and state constitutions define the types of local government and each type’s duties, powers, and responsibilities.
County Govt in TX - There are 254 counties in Texas.
1. Creation
  1. Counties are created by the Texas state legislature. The legislature passes a law defining the boundaries and area of a county.
2. Purpose
  1. To carry out important functions for the state government.
3. Functions
  1. Law + Order
    1. The Sheriff's Office is elected.
    2. County Jail
  2. Courts + Justice
    1. County Court, presided over by a county judge
  3. Tax collection - State relies on counties to help them collect taxes
    1. Sales Tax
    2. Motor Vehicle Tax
    3. Every county elects their county tax assessor.
  4. Record Keeping
    1. Birth certificates are issued by county government in Texas
    2. Marriage licenses are issued by county government in Texas
    3. Divorces are issued by county government
    4. Death certificates are signed off by the county government.
    5. The voters of every county will elect a county clerk that oversees this record keeping function.
  5. Roads + Bridges
    1. Charged with keeping roads and bridges running and maintenance.
    2. As well as establishing farm to market roads.
  6. Public Health
    1. Many counties will have a public health clinic, because they have to deal with those who cannot pay for healthcare themselves.
    2. Public hospitals
  7. Elections
    1. The primary system that is responsible for the conduct of elections is county government in Texas
    2. Over 60% of counties in Texas have a non-partisan elections administration office.
      1. Responsible for providing voting equipment, voting locations, ballots, and voter registration.
    3. Some counties give this responsibility to the county clerk or the tax assessor’s office.
4. Structures
  1. County Court → basic trial level court for TX. Judicial branch
    1. Presided over by the county judge, who is elected by the residents/voters/county
  2. Executive Branch
    1. Plural executive, we have multiple, directly elected county offices.
    2. Sheriff, Tax assessor, County clerk, County attorney.
    3. The head of the county government is the county judge.
    4. As the head of the executive branch, the county judge:
      1. Prepare the county budget for adoption
      2. Implement county ordinances (local laws)/oversee the implementation.
      3. Oversee day to day operation of county government
      4. Appoint some key department heads like the Elections Administrator.
  3. Legislative Branch
    1. Commissioners Court
      1. Consists of 4 commissioners, who are elected one each from four districts or precincts in the county. This is true of all 254 counties in Texas.
    2. They adopt the county budget
    3. Set property tax rates
    4. Pass ordinances (local law)
    5. Designed to represent the residents/voters of the county.
    6. Road + bridges budget (¼ per commissioner)
    7. Set alcohol policy, set by each commissioner for their precinct.
  4. Presiding Officer of Commissioner’s Court
    1. County Judge
      1. Calls meetings to order
      2. sets the agenda
      3. Presides and votes
In Texas, the County Judge is on all three levels of county government. Texas violates separation of powers and checks and balances in the structure of county government.

Cities in TX

Creation
1. Residents in an area define boundaries of a city + hold a vote to incorporate a city
2. To do so = must have at least 200 residents
3. TX = cities may cross county lines
Purpose
1. To provide residents with the services they desire
  1. Parks, recreation, libraries, street lighting, drainage, trash collection, police, fire.
  2. Counties are to provide functions that the state wants done, cities are to provide functions that residents want.
  3. Villages and towns do not exist in Texas. In Texas, you’re either a city or not.
Types of Cities in TX
1. General Law Cities, about 70% of Texas cities are this.
  1. Default city when you create a city
  2. State law and state constitution specify
    1. The plan or structure or form of city government.
    2. Types of ordinances
    3. Election system used for city elections
    4. Limits on annexation (how fast you can incorporate new land into city limits)
2. Home Rule
  1. In 1912, we amended the state constitution (1876) to allow for home rule.
  2. Home rule only applies to cities in Texas.
  3. To be home rule, you must have:
    1. 5,000 or more residents
    2. Write a plan of government which outlines:
      1. the structure of city government
      2. Institutions and their powers
    3. A vote of the residents of the city, if they vote yes, you are a home rule city.
  4. Why?
    1. For freedom
    2. Home rule cities have a greater ability to decide the form and structure of city government. You have more freedom to determine:
      1. Types of ordinances
      2. Election system
      3. Annexation
3. Company Town
  1. There are currently 0 company towns in Texas, but there is a history of company towns in Texas and other states.
  2. These no longer exist in Texas
4. The most recent city to be incorporated in Texas is Starbase, Texas. One of the most recent cities to become home rule is Center, Texas.
Forms of City Govt.
1. Mayor-Council - Resembles U.S. National Government presidential system. Example: Houston
  1. Legislature - City Council
    1. Represents residents of city
    2. Passes ordinances
    3. Override mayoral vetoes of ordinances
    4. Set property tax + sales tax rates
    5. Adopt city budget
  2. Executive - Mayor
    1. Elected by residents
    2. Head the executive branch
    3. Hire department heads
    4. Veto ordinances passed by the city council
2. Council-Manager - Less separation of powers, manager has no checks on the legislature.
  1. Legislature - City Council
    1. Represent the residents of city
    2. Pass ordinances
    3. Set property tax + sales tax rates
    4. Adopt city budget
    5. Hire city manager (first difference between mayor-council to council-manager)
    6. Hire (approve) the heads of city departments.
  2. Executive - Headed by city manager (hired by city council)
    1. A city manager is often an expert in city government, hired because of their knowledge.
      1. Hired to be apolitical and non-partisan run the city based on how to manage a city efficiently, less political, more managerial.
    2. Recommend new ordinances to city council
3. City Commissioner - Least common type both in Texas and nationally
  1. Residents elect the heads of each city department. Ex: Fire chief, police chief, head of street department.
  2. Department heads run their departments independently and implement ordinances that affect their department
  3. Department heads meet regularly as the city council (legislature) to:
    1. Adopt the city budget
    2. Set tax rates (property and sales)
    3. Pass ordinances
  4. Somewhat mirrors TX plural executive
  5. You cannot use this system of government in Texas because our State Legislature doesn’t like it.

Local Government Election Systems in Texas

Single Member District-Plurality (SMD-P)
1. Divide the political system (county, city, school districts) into election districts.
2. The number of districts is going to equal the number of seats in the legislature (city council, school board, county commissioners court)
3. Voter casts 1 vote for their most preferred candidate running in their election district.
4. Who wins? The candidate with the most votes in each district.
At Large
1. Entire political system (city or school district) is one unified election district
2. A voter has multiple votes equal to the total number of seats in the legislature to be elected. (If there are four seats to be filled, you’ll have four votes.)
3. The voter casts one vote for their most preferred candidates equal to the total number of votes they have. (seats to be elected)
4. Who wins? Candidates with the most votes up to the total number of seats to be filled.
At Large By Place
1. Entire political system (city or school district) is one unified election district
2. Candidates declare they are running for specific seats or places in the legislature. (city council or a school board)
3. The voter votes for their most preferred candidate running for each place or seat in the legislature.
4. Who wins? The candidate with the most votes running for each position place/seat
  1. There is not a link to geography
Cumulative Voting
1. Entire political system is one, unified election district
2. Voter has multiple votes equal to the total number of seats on legislature (city council, school board to be elected)
3. Voters may give all votes to 1 candidate or spread their votes across multiple candidates. For example, if you are given 5 votes and can give 3 to one candidate and 2 to another, 1 vote to 5 candidates, and so on.
4. Who wins? Candidates with most votes = total # of seats in the legislature to be elected.

Advantages and Disadvantages to Each Election System

SMD-P

Advantages
- Lower information cost to voters
- Lower cost to run (only advertise to 1 district)
- Candidates closer to district they are representing
- Less subject to manipulation
- Each part of city, county, school districts is represented because the districts are geographic
Disadvantages
- Gerrymandering
- Only got one vote for one candidate
- If you don’t like your options you must relocate

At Large

Advantages
- Full freedom of choice with candidates
- Caters to wider audience
- Reduce parochialism, instead focus on city-wide, county-wide issues
Disadvantages
- Higher info cost
- Harder to make decision
- Candidates don’t choose which seats they are elected to
- Lacks geographic representation

At Large by Place

Advantages
- See all options
- Makes easier to vote
- Candidates can choose what seat they run for & who they face
Disadvantages
- Lower pops are disadvantaged, too vague.
- Lacks geographic representation
- Higher information cost compared to SMDP

Cumulative

Advantages
- Your candidate can be more likely to vote
- More freedom when placing multiples of votes
- Intensity of voter’s preference
- Women + racial/ethnic minority candidates are more likely to win
Disadvantages
- Candidates must stand out
- Information cost
- Smaller spread or too large spread of votes
- Higher likelihood of spoiled ballots compared to single member district plurality

Education Policy in TX

Types of School districts in TX
1. County School Districts
  1. The entire county is a single, unified school district.
  2. All public schools in the district are part of that unified school district
  3. School district is an arm of the county government
2. City School District
  1. Boundaries of the school district are the same as the city, so all public schools in the city are part of the city school district, and the public schools are run as a department within the city government.
  2. Ex: Stratford in Harris County
3. Independent School District
  1. Boundaries do not equal city limits, or county lines, instead they may cross county lines.
  2. May contain multiple cities or may contain only part of a city.
  3. They are called independent because they are separate and distinct from other local governments like a county or city, they are controlled by their own governing board that governs only the school district.
  4. Governed in TX by an elected Board of Trustees
  5. The State of TX has 1,000+ school districts, making it the most common mode of school districts in Texas.
Localism/Local Control in TX
1. TX has a long history of localism and local control over public education.
2. Local elected boards to govern school districts (ISDs) or they were county or city government → accountable to a county commissioner’s court, or a city council.
3. This placed control in the hands of the residents, whether of the city, county, or school district. They have accountability to the voters. This led to residents having control over the board of trustees, leading them to control the following:
  1. Board of Trustees → ISDs
    1. Property tax rates
    2. Hire superintendent
    3. Set policies for school district
4. This also led to local control over curriculum and activities, and ultimately facilities. This also leads to bonds = certificates of debt, which are often designed for local control.
5. Over the past decades, we’ve seen effort from the state to diminish local control
How local control has been diminished in TX
1. There has been a pushback for political reasons and demand from voters who don’t recognize the impact of their choice
2. The state has put limits on how fast public school districts can institute property tax rates and increase them.
3. The state has imposed limits on school district debt. (upper limit on bonds) which diminishes local control over the school system
4. The state is now setting the curriculum.
5. The state also sets accountability standards = standardized testing (STAAR Test, College and Career Readiness, Attendance) all of this matters for the state funding formula. If the state limits how much property tax a school district can charge, where is that money going to come from? It’s going to come from the state government. This funding comes with guidelines, demands, etc. This gives the state more control and takes control from the local government.