Unit 8: 1945-1980s - The 1950s and Beyond

The 1950s Cold War

I. Causes

Eras of confrontation and competition from ~1945 to ~1990.
Started with disagreements among Big 3 Allies during WWII.
Heightened by U.S. atomic bombs.

A. Soviet Union

Series fear of another German attack.
Wanted countries around them under Soviet control for a buffer zone.
Wanted to shield their country from capitalist and western influence.

II. Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)

Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin meet.
They discussed Germany post-war, planning to divide it into 4 zones (US, Great Britain, France, Soviets).
Same done to Berlin.
They agreed to allow Commie Poland if Stalin promised free elections.
Agreed rest of Europe chooses its own government.
Stalin also agrees to potentially assisting in the Pacific if he gets to have influence after.

III. Potsdam Conference (Mid July to August 2nd, 1945)

Truman, Churchill, and Stalin (without Hitler as a common enemy, harder to work together).
Agreements from Yalta are solidified but disagreements regarding German reparations.
Truman tells Stalin about testing an atomic bomb.
Stalin agrees to reparations but feels threatened.
Shortly after Potsdam, Stalin breaks promise, forces Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia to become Commies, influence in Poland.
Commie nations become known as Satellite Nations.
Churchill proclaims an Iron Curtain has fallen across Europe.

IV. Containment

US struggled to find best way to combat communism in Feb 1946.
US government reaches out to US embassy in Moscow to get a better understanding.
US diplomat responds with the Long Telegram addressing Soviet goals, fear of Germany, West intervention, and capitalism.
Truman decides best course of action is Policy of Containment, keeping communism where it already exists and not letting it spread.
Truman Doctrine: $400 million$ to fight communist expansion, particularly in Eastern Europe.
Marshall Plan: Allocation billions of dollars to countries mainly in Western Europe to help them rebuild post WWII.
Philosophy: stable countries are less susceptible to fall to Communist influence.
Fear based in Domino Theory.

V. Berlin Crisis

1948: Great Britain, France, and US merge their zones of Germany and Berlin.
These 3 zones become West Germany and West Berlin.
Soviet Controlled: West Germany and East Berlin.
June 1948: Soviet Union closes all traffic to West Berlin.
Goal: Force other 3 countries to give up their half.
Truman responds by stationing bombers in W. Germany.
Then begins regularly sending bombers and then cargo planes with supplies which goes on for 11 months, until Stalin ends blockade in May 1949.

VI. Divide Continues

As airlift comes to an end, NATO’s formed as a mutual defense alliance between countries, pledging to assist if somebody was attacked.
Soviet Union quickly responds with own alliance in Europe known as Warsaw Pact.

VII. China

Before WWII, China amidst Civil War paused during Japanese invasion.
Civil war between Chinese Nationalist Party versus Chinese Communist Party.
Communist victory, establishes People’s Republic of China.
Quickly establishes an alliance with Soviet Union.

VIII. Japan

The US planned for a long term occupation of Japan to ensure it becomes a stable democratic nation.
Also a base in Asia to fight against communism.
This was spearheaded by General MacArthur who was very involved in the rebuild of Japan.
Ultimately gains a lot of respect from the Japanese

The Korean War

I. Post WWII

As the war with Japan was coming to a close, the Soviet Union stepped in to help the US remove Japan from some of the countries that they had invaded in exchange for influence in Asia
When it came to Korea, they decide to divide the country in half.
The Soviets: North Korea and establish a communist government.
The US: South Korea and establish a democratic government.
Two countries divided at the 38th Parallel (Latitude lines).

II. The War

In June 1950: N. Korean troops invade S. Korea, successfully pushing their way through the country
US and UN (United Nations) intervene to help S. Korea
Gen. MacArthur plans Operation Chromite, an amphibious invasion of South Korea, hoping to cut the N. Koreans off from their supply lines.
Successful intervention, N. Koreans forced to retreat.
S. Korean, US, and UN troops pursue retreating army into N. Korea, almost to the Chinese border.
Feeling threatened, China intervenes on behalf of N. Korea.
MacArthur demands that Truman allow him to expand the war into China.
Truman refuses, preferring a more limited traditional warfare. After MacArthur speaks out publicly, Truman fires him.
The war continues for 2 more years with neither side gaining much ground.
Ends in July 1953 with an armistice: both sides agreeing to ceasefire

III. Significance

Officially expands the Cold War into Asia.
Starts the beginning of a US military build up.
At the armistice, the DMZ (demilitarized zone) is established, like a buffer zone between the country’s borders due to the tension from unresolved conflict and closure from the war.
Creates a physical and psychology divide between the two countries (North and South Korea) that is still prominent today

Arms + Space Race

I. New Look

The election of 1952 resulted in Rep. General Dwight D. Eisenhower becoming president
He wanted to handle the Cold War with a strong military & strong economy and was not fully supportive of traditional warfare, wanting to rely more on nuclear weapons
Establishes a policy of Mass Retaliation threatening nuclear warfare as a response to aggression, hoping that this threat would prevent war

II. U2 Incident

When Stalin dies, Nikita Kruschev takes his place as Soviet leader
With new men leading both countries, they see it as an opportunity to improve relations and agree to meet.
During the summit in Paris, Kruschev is informed by his people that the Soviets have shot down an American spy plane.
The plane and pilot, Francis Gary Powers, were captured.
Kruschev stops the summit.
After initially denying the claim, Eisenhower is forced to apologize to get Powers back.
We do find out later that they were also spying on us

III. The Arms Race

It became a competition to have superior military power, which led to huge (military) advancements in technology — including
1. increased flight and weight durability in bombers
2. submarines with nuclear capabilities
3. ICBMs (inter-continental ballistic missiles)
In Oct 1957, the Soviets shock the world moving beyond the Arms Race by launching a satellite named Sputnik into space
Americans are panicked that we’re falling behind

IV. The Space Race

The next year, Congress launches NASA (National Aeronautics Space Administration) and creates National Defense Act, increasing the push of science and math in American schools.
April 1961, Soviets put a man in space named Yuri Gargarin
US responds a month later, sending Allen Shepherd into space.
1962, John Glenn becomes the first man to orbit the Earth.
At this point, President Kennedy sets the goal of landing on the Moon by the end of the decade
NASA constructs a launching pad in Cape Canaveral, Florida and a mission control center in Houston, Texas and then begin a series of Apollo missions working towards the Moon landing.
Finally, July 1969, Apollo 11 manned by Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins complete a moon landing mission
1. During WWII, what were the allies searching for from Germany? A long-range rocket known as the V2 and the scientist who worked on it (Von Braun)
2. While searching for the V2 Rocket, what did allies find? Concentration camp “Mittelbau-Dora” and a vast underground V2 Factory with blueprints and materials
3. Why was Eisenhower reluctant to use Von Braun to work on the US rocket program? It’d be political suicide due to Von Braun’s German roots, which he wanted to avoid association with the Germans
4. What happened with the 1st American satellite? It exploded 💥
5. What’s the name of the 1st successful American satellite launched in space? Jupiter C
6. What was the name of the 1st manned mission that would orbit to the moon? Apollo 8
7. What entertainment tycoon was brought in to help with the program’s popularity? Walt Disney

The Cold War at Home

I. The 2nd Red Scare

Post WWII, there is a new wave of fear regarding communism that is heightened by nuclear warfare and a paranoia that communists would infiltrate the country, particularly the government begins
To deal with this, Truman establishes a Loyalty Program to screen government employees for communist ties
Instead of easing fear, this validated concerns
Spiral continues when FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover establishes the HUAC (House of Un-American Activities Committee), not only investigating the government but suspects in the general population
These investigations start to create a circus-like atmosphere

II. Hollywood Ten

Film and entertainment industry becomes major target of HUAC
Many were accused of having communist ties and even using film to promote communism in our society
Hundreds were investigated and questioned, even the slightest suspicion or connection landed them on a blacklist which prevented them from working
10 were actually imprisoned for communist ties
These actions heavily impacted careers, with some not recovering from them

III. Ethel and Julius Rosenberg

When the Soviets successfully test an atomic bomb, the search for communists shifts to those that may be working as spies
The fear was how much American science was being used to the Soviet’s benefit
A spy network was discovered and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were arrested, convicted, and executed by electric chair
Upon further investigation, it was clear they were communists
Julius passed along a little information; nothing consequential.
Ethel’s role is unclear

IV. McCarthyism

Sen. Joseph McCarthy comes forward, claiming to have a list of Communists
This leads to series of investigations, with a witch hunt mentality, and he is regarded as a hero but the hearings of those accused is televised
It becomes very clear that McCarthy has little evidence and that his investigation and questioning techniques were very questionable
His popularity begins to decline, but again, even without guilt— careers were ruined

V. Society

The fear becomes a dominant part of American society
Unknown of nuclear warfare pushes people to start preparing for in the event of an attack
To help ease the fears, civil defense programs are created, hoping to decrease the paranoia if people felt more prepared

1950s American Society

I. The Changing Family

A. Baby Boom

As soldiers returned from WWII, a population explosion known as the baby boom occurred
Late 1940’s to early 1960’s: Birthrates in the US soared
1957: Height of Baby Boom, one American infant was born every 7 seconds
Largest generation in the nation’s history

Factors to the Baby Boom

Reunion of Husbands & Wives
Decreasing Marriage Age
Desirability of Large Families
Confidence in Continued Economic Prosperity
Advances in Medicine

B. Women’s Roles

Role of homemaker and mother glorified in popular magazines, movies, and TV programs
“Key figure in all suburbia, the thread that weaves between family and community— the keeper of the suburban dream”
Women like Carol Freeman spoke of their discontentment, unhappy with their roles as they were feeling isolated, bored, and unfulfilled
$1/5$ th of suburban wives were dissatisfied with their lives
The Feminine Mystique: Written by Betty Friedan, described this problem
Number of women working outside the home rose steadily between the decade
By 1960, 40% of mothers with children between the ages of 6 to 17 held paying jobs
Career opportunities for women limited to nurses, teaching, and office support which paid less than other professional/business positions
Women earned less than men for comparable work

II. Automobile

Suburban living made ownership of a car a necessity
New suburbs mostly did not offer public transportation
People had to drive to jobs in the city and many schools, stores synagogues, churchs, and doctor’s/dentist’s offices were not within walking distance
Automania spurred government to construct roads (more cars, more roads)
Roads linked to the major cities while connecting schools, shopping centers, and workplaces to residential suburban areas
1956: President Eisenhower signed National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956, funded in 1967, and authorized building of nationwide highway network

A. Effects of Automobile and Highways

Encouraged development of suburbs increasingly further away from cities
Made high speed, long haul trucking possible and contributed to decline in commercialized railroad usage
Towns along new highways: Prospered
Towns along older, smaller roads: Struggled and experienced hard times
Helped unify and homogenize (make same/similar) the nation
Noise and exhaust polluted the air
Accidents claimed more lives every year
Traffic jams raising people’s stress levels
Heavy usage damaging the roads
Jobs and business declining in crowded cities as people moved into suburban areas
Decline of public transportation
Poor people left without jobs and vital services and a gap between the suburban rich and the urban dwellers poor widened

III. Consumerism

Consumerism: Purchasing of material goods
Constant stream of new products and services as industries responded to consumer demands and new tech emerged
Electric household appliances become common household items; washing machines, clothes dryers, blenders, freezers, and dishwashers
With increased leisure time, more investment in recreational activities; casual clothes, power lawn mowers, barbeque grills, swimming pools, and lawn decorations
Planned Obsolescence: Marketing strategy where manufacturers purposefully designed products to become obsolete/wear out within a short period of time
“Throwaway Society”
Advertisements everywhere; newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and billboards along the highways
Advertisers convincing consumers to purchase things they didn’t really need, appealing to status and belongingness

IV. Mass Media

A. Television

Federal Communications Commission (FCC): government agency that regulates and licenses television, telephone, telegraph, radio, and other communications industries
1949: Television only reached a small part of the East Coast
By 1956: 500 new stations allowed by FCC to broadcast
“Golden age” of television entertainment as television in a period of rapid expansion

B. Radio/Movies

Instead of competing with television for drama or variety shows, radio stations turned to local programming of news, weather, music, and communal issues
Radio advertising rose by 35% and number of stations increased by 50%
From the beginning though television cut into the profit of movie market, and number of moviegoers decreased by nearly half with more people watching TV
However movies continued to capitalize on their advantages: size, color, and stereophonic sound

V. Subculture

A. Beat Movement

Expressed social and literary nonconformity of artists, poets, and writers
Beat: originally meant “weary” but came to refer to musical beats as well
Followers called beats or beatniks lived nonconformist lives seeking higher consciousness through Zen Buddhism, music, and sometimes drugs
Belief in imposing as little structure on their artistic works as possible
Inspired free, open form art with poetry read aloud in coffeehouses and other gathering places
Most mainstream Americans found the lifestyle less enchanting but college students intrigued

B. Rock & Roll

Audience mostly white but usually produced by African Americans
American music
Elvis Presley: Unofficial King of Rock n Roll, rebellious style captivating young audiences
Many adults condemned rock n roll, believing it’d lead to delinquency and immorality
Rock n roll concerts banned in a few cities, but television and radio exposure helped bring it mainstream and it became more acceptable by the end of the decade

Into The 1960s

The Kennedy Presidency

I. Early Life

Born into a wealthy Massachusetts family
Travels extensively in Europe pre-World War II
Serves in the navy during WWII where he earns a purple heart
Post-war he writes a novel (Pulitzer-prize winning) then enters the house, later moving to the Senate

II. 1960 Election

In 1960, Kennedy becomes the Democratic nominee
Well-oiled machine of a campaign (well-funded, energetic, youthful) with the idea of progressing America through the 20th century
Opponent: Current Republican vice president Richard Nixon
The two were quite similar politically, but two late events turned the election in favor of Kennedy
September 1960: The two appear in the first televised debate, where Kennedy’s calm, charismatic demeanor clearly gave him the edge
October 1960: Second event, Martin Luther King Jr is arrested for participation in a sit-in. President Eisenhower chooses uninvolvement, pushing Nixon to do the same.
Kennedy responds by personally calling King’s wife, Corretta Scott King, and his brother Robert Kennedy immediately begins working with lawyers to get MLK Jr released
Catches the attention of American public, particularly with black voters, giving Kennedy and Vice Presidential candidate, Texas senator, Lyndon B Johnson the victory

III. Camelot

Kennedy and his First Lady, Jackie, and their two children were almost picture perfect
The Press was obsessed to the point they were almost treated like the Royal Family, earning the time period being called the “Camelot” years
The White House became the place to be, often attracting celebrities and famous artists of all types

IV. Cold War/Cuba

Cuba is now openly Communist and under the leadership of Fidel Castro
Cuba forms a relationship with the Soviet Union, negatively impacting their relationship with the US

A. Bay of Pigs

Before leaving office, Eisenhower gave the CIA permission to start training Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba to overthrow the Communist govt
Kennedy becomes president, approves the plan
April 1961: The attack happens and is a complete disaster, as the exiles were poorly trained, incorrect level of gathering intelligence
Kennedy is forced to take the blame and forced to apologize

B. Cuban Missile Crisis

The Soviets begin providing Cuba with nuclear weapons, and weapons in general
This angers Kennedy, and when the next shipment comes across, he has the US navy go block it
This leads to a 13 day stand off
Ultimately, the Soviets turn back and agree to remove the weapons from Cuba if we promise not to attack

V. Cold War/Berlin

11 years since the Berlin Airlift, and during that time almost ~3 mil East Germans fled to West Berlin to escape Communist rule which angered the Soviets
In August 1961 they begin building the Berlin Wall which is a concrete barrier blocking travel into West Berlin
Increased tensions with the United States
To avoid further conflict, Kennedy and Kruschev establish a direct phone-line between the two known as the HotLine to increase communication
They also both agreed on the Limited Test Ban Treaty, putting limitations on nuclear testing

VI. New Frontier

Kennedy’s presidential program targeting the economy, education, medical care, and the space program
Notably, established the Peace Corps, a volunteer program to help countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
Pushed the space program towards landing on the moon
Tackled poverty alongside his brother, Robert Kennedy, with tax cuts for low income and policies targeting racial discrimination in the workplace particularly in the South

VII. The Assassination

Nov 22nd, 1963: Kennedys in Dallas, Texas to participate in a parade in preparation for the 1964 election
During the parade, JFK is shot multiple times, he is rushed to the hospital but freaking dies yo
Frantic manhunt occurs and Lee Harvey Oswald is arrested
The nation is shocked and devastated
Days later as Oswald is being moved to a jail, he is shot and killed by Jack Ruby
Now, the country is caught up in mass confusion
New president, Lyndon Johnson, tries to deal with the spiral by establishing the Warren Commission which is led by Chief Justice Earl Warren and other trusted members of the government to investigate the assassinations, ultimately determining both men acted alone

Johnson’s Presidency

I. Rise in Politics

Johnson starts in the House, before moving to the Senate, and here he is mentored by President Roosevelt and becomes a very powerful figure particularly in the Senate
Mastering how to maneuver his colleagues to pass legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1957
This power gets him chosen as Kennedy’s VP, and as a Texas Senator he has influence over Southern representatives

II. Taking Over

Taking over after Kennedy was difficult to navigate
He encourages the American people that the best way to honor Kennedy is to continue his legacy
With this, he passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which further prohibited discrimination based on race and helps to protect voting rights
He also passes the Economic Opportunity Act, providing a billion dollars to help fight poverty
Created programs like Job Corps to help Americans find jobs and Headstart for low-income preschoolers

III. The Great Society

In 1964, Johnson wins his own election
Johnson’s program is very similar to the New Deal and in his 4 years, he and Congress pass over 200 policies

A. Education

Provides ~ $1$ billion dollars for public school improvement
First time we really witness funding dedicated that much to public school

B. Healthcare

Enhances Social Security (Roosevelt’s New Deal) by providing Medicare and Medicaid

C. Housing

Spends money to build low income housing
Creates the Department of Housing and Urban Development

D. Immigration

Ends discrimination against non-European immigrants, setting equal regulations for all

E. Environment

Rachel Carson publishes a book called “Silent Spring” highlighting the amount of chemicals getting into the water supply
Pushes Johnson to pass the Water Quality Act, outlawing certain chemicals
Also passes regulations on businesses regarding the disposal of their chemical waste

F. Consumer Protection

Increased regulation on packaging for food
Setting standards for automobiles and tires

Warren Court

I. Background

Warren Court describes the most famous era on the Supreme Court, when the Chief Justice was Earl Warren from 1953 to 1969
Over this nearly $17$ -year-long period, the Court saw $15$ different Justices— representing $5$ different presidents: Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson
This Court was known for being very progressive, often clashing with conservative groups like the Southern states
This era is marked by many landmark cases, expanding civil rights, civil liberties, and criminal justice reform

II. Impact

Extended lots of individual rights under the Bill of Rights
Extended federal power over the states and setting precedents for future cases

III. Landmark Cases

A. Brown v. Board of Education

Background

In the 1950s, schools were segregated by race
Linda Brown and her sister had to walk further through a dangerous route to get to their segregated school, when there was a closer school they could not go to because of segregation

Constitutional

Linda Brown believed that the segregated system violated the Fourteenth Amendment and took the case to court

Verdict & Impact

1954, Supreme Court Justices unanimously decided segregated schools were unconstitutional
Separate but equal has no place in the field of public education
Overruled the Supreme Court’s previous decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 which previously determined it constitutional

B. Mapp v. Ohio

Background

Police in Cleveland, Ohio were suspicious of Dollree Mapp that she may be involved in a bombing
They knocked and demanded entrance, and made their way in without a warrant
Mapp took this case to the U.S. Supreme Court

Constitutional

Violation of the the fourth amendment in the Constitution

Verdict & Impact

The court determined evidence obtained through a search that violates the Fourth Amendment is inadmissible in state courts

C. Gideon v. Wainwright

Background

Clarence Earl Gideon was charged in Florida with a felony
When he requested a court appointed lawyer, but the trial court did not appoint one and Gideon had to represent himself and was found guilty
Gideon filed a Habeas Corpus (writ requiring a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court, especially to secure the person’s release unless lawful grounds are shown for their detention)
Indigent Defendant: An individual accused of a crime who cannot afford legal representation and is therefore entitled to a court-appointed counsel, often a public defender, to ensure a fair trial

Constitutional

Argued that the trial court’s decision violated his constitutional right to be represented by a counsel
Fourteenth & Sixth Amendment violation

Verdict & Impact

The Supreme Court placed a high value on the right of the accused to be properly defended
They held that it was consistent with the constitution to require state courts to appoint attorneys for defendants who could not afford to retain counsel on their own

D. Miranda v. Arizona

Background

March 13, 1964: Ernesto Miranda was arrested in his house and questioned for two hours in which he signed a confession to kidnapping and rape
While at trial, Miranda’s interrogators admitted they failed to inform him of his rights to an attorney
Despite objections from Miranda’s lawyers after this, the trial resumed with his confession, and a jury found Miranda guilty

Constitutional

Violated Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination

Verdict & Impact

The court ruled the verdict in Miranda’s favor
Due to the ruling in 1966, police must now tell any person suspected of a crime in police custody their Miranda Rights: You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can, and will, be used against you in a court of law.”

E. Loving v. Virginia

Background

1958, A black woman named Mildred Jeter and a white man named Richard Loving, got married
Then the couple was charged with violating the state's anti-miscegenation

Constitutional

Violated equal protection clause of the fourteenth amendment
Violated the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment, “the freedom to marry, or not marry, a person of another race resides with the individual, and cannot be infringed by the state.”

Verdict & Impact

Court held that distinctions drawn according to race were generally “odious to a free people” and were subject to “the most rigid scrutiny” under the equal protection clause
A major victory in the fight for racial equality and a turning point in the civil rights movement
Established that the freedom to marry or not marry is a fundamental right that cannot be infringed upon by the state based on race

F. Tinker v. Des Moines

Background

December 1965, a group of students in Des Moines held a meeting to plan a public showing of their support for a truce in the Vietnam war
The principals of Des Moines learned of the plan and decided to create a policy that any student wearing an armband (showing support) would result in suspension

Constitutional

Violation of the First Amendment, freedom of speech protection

Verdict & Impact

The court ruled that it was a violation
Tinker remains the key precedent for student expression in the United States of America, protecting individual expression and freedom, not censorship

Civil Rights of the 1950s

I. Brown v. Board of Ed.

May 1954: Overturns an old Supreme Court case (Plessy v. Ferguson) that had ruled “Separate but Equal” was legal
Deemed school segregation against the 2nd amendment but also feared the psychological, sociological impact that segregating children had societally

II. Emmett Till

14-year-old black teenager from Chicago, visiting family in Mississipi
Accused of hitting on an adult white woman while in a grocery store
At night, his husband and her brother abduct Till, where he is mutilated and beaten, shot, and then thrown into a river
Brutality of this murder gets national attention
His mother chooses to have an open-casket to make the nation confront the violence
Sadly, neither man is convicted
Eventually, coming clean about their role and his wife admitting she had fabricated the story

III. Montgomery Bus Boycott

Quite common for public transportation to be segregated, with white passengers in the front and black passengers in the back
Activist named Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat in 1955 challenging segregation laws and was arrested
This sparks a city-wide boycott of black citizens refusing to use public transportation for the next year
Forces the city to end their segregation laws on public transit

IV. Little Rock Nine

1957, 9 black highschool students are enrolled at an all-white highschool in Little Rock, Arkansas
Attempting to directly test if Brown v. Board will hold
On the first day of school, the students are met by an angry mob
Eight of them arrive together and are quickly departed
Elizabeth Eckford missed the memo and arrived alone, luckily saved from the mob by a sympathetic white woman
The state’s governor mobilized the National Guard to further prevent the students from attending
This prompts President Eisenhower to order the removal of the Guard, initially asking the local police to help the students attend— and when that failed, sending in the US army to ensure the students’ protection as they attended the school

Civil Rights of the 1960s

I. Sit-Ins

A non-violent protest taking up place in a business until you are served
Tactic starts in Nashville, but the most famous is at a department store lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina (1960)
Sit-in lasted 6 months, until the store changed its policy, which sparked similar protests across the country

II. Freedom Riders

Group of black and white college students who began riding interstate buses, deliberately breaking segregation laws to see if a Supreme Court ruling dismissing those laws will actually hold
The riders are regularly attacked with fire bombs and physical violence often led by the KKK and police inaction
President Kennedy’s attorney general— Robert Kennedy— sends US Marshals to protect the riders, and more laws are passed to enforce bus desegregation

III. Ole Miss

In 1961, a black veteran named James Meredith attempts to enroll at Ole Miss (Univ. of Mississippi) and this is met by mob violence in the surrounding area
The state’s governor personally attempts to block his acceptance
The Kennedys, again, are forced to act by providing federal protection
Meredith successfully enrolls and later obtains his degree, continuing the slow process of desegregation in education

IV. Birmingham, AL

One of, or the most, segregated cities in America with a substantial KKK presence
Along with a police commissioner named Bull Connor, whose force actively participated in the violence regularly
1963, Civil Rights activists make this a focal point for protests with anything they can do to cause Birmingham to crack hoping if they did, then other states would follow suite
During this time, King is arrested and writes his famous “Letter from Birmingham Jail” and the nation becomes horrified at the violence used against peaceful protestors— particularly children
Violence reaches its height in September, when a church is bombed and results in the death of 4 little girls with local police suspected which leads Kennedy to declare a new Civil Rights act is needed

The Vietnam War

I. Background

France controls Indochina since late 19th century
Japan takes control in WWII, during this time, Ho Chi Minh—who had been inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution and rise of leaders in the Soviet Union— founds the League of Independence of Vietnam (Vietminh)
When France attempts to recolonize post-war, Minh attempts to take control of Vietnam, leading to the 1st Indochina