Environmental Management IGCSE/O Level - Coursebook Notes

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management Coursebook Notes

Rocks and Minerals

Formation of Rocks

  • Rock: Combination of minerals.

  • Mineral: Naturally occurring inorganic substance with specific chemical composition.

  • Igneous Rock: Formed from molten rock (magma or lava).

    • Rapid cooling = small crystals; Slow cooling = large crystals.

  • Sedimentary Rock: Formed from weathering, accumulation, and fossilization.

    • Sediments: clay, silts, sands, gravels, boulders.

  • Metamorphic Rock: Formed from existing rocks via heat and pressure.

  • Rock Cycle: Continuous erosion and reformation of rock types.

Extraction of Rocks and Minerals

  • Simple prospecting involves surface examination; remote sensing includes aerial and satellite imaging.

  • Geochemical analysis of samples identifies chemicals.

  • Geophysical methods use seismic waves.

  • Resource evaluation estimates grade/tonnage.

  • Mineral ore reserve classification considers practical extractability.

  • Feasibility studies assess financial/technical risks.

Mining Methods

  • Surface Mining: Open-pit and strip mining (for seams).

  • Sub-surface Mining: Tunnels/shafts for deeper deposits; includes drift mines with adits.

Factors Affecting Extraction

  • Costs (exploration, extraction).

  • Geology.

  • Climate and accessibility.

  • Environmental impact.

  • Supply and demand; High-grade ores yield more elements.

Impacts of Rock and Mineral Extraction

  • Ecological: Habitat loss reduced biodiversity.

  • Pollution: Noise, water (acid mine drainage, toxic metal ions), Land, Air (dust), Visual pollution.

  • Bioaccumulation of metal ions occurs.

Strategies to Manage Impacts

  • Environmental impact assessments.

  • Safe waste disposal to prevent collapse and water pollution.

  • Land restoration through reshaping, soil covering, and planting.

  • Bioremediation: Using organisms to remove pollutants.

Sustainable Use

  • Sustainable development balances environmental, economic, and social factors.

  • Improve extraction/processing efficiency, and focus on recycling/reuse.

Energy and the Environment

Fossil Fuels

  • Formed from decayed plants/animals over millions of years under heat & pressure.

  • Includes natural gas, coal, and oil; they are non-renewable energy dense.

Energy Resources

  • Non-Renewable: Limited supply (oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear).

  • Renewable: Can be replenished (geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, wind, solar, biofuels).

  • Electricity generation uses turbines & generators via electromagnetic induction.

  • Various sources heat water for steam while others turn turbines directly.

Using Different Energy Sources

  • Economic, social, and environmental factors affect energy source decisions.

  • Economic factors: Fuel supply, accessibility, and investment costs.

  • Social factors: Employment, infrastructure, potential community displacement.

  • Environmental factors: Pollution potential: spillage, combustion, visual impact.

Demand for Energy

  • Driven by increasing population, industrialization, standards of living.

  • Factors: industrial/domestic demand, transport costs, economic factors, and climate.
    Reduce Consumption to make sure energy is effective.

  • Consider house design and insulation materials.

    Energy from Waste

    • Waste can burn for heat used to generate electricity.

Other Stategies

  • Reduce non-renewable fuels to rely on other methods.

    • Make a difference such a strict building regulations.

Impact of Oil Pollution

  • Oil spills have significant environmental & economic impacts on marine ecosystems.

  • Strategies such as booms, detergent sprays, and skimmers are used to manage oil spills at sea.

Agriculture and the Environment

The Soil

  • Soil Basics are: mineral particles, organic content, air, and water.

  • Texture: Sand (gritty), Silt (silky), Clay (sticky).

Soils for Plant Growth

-Mineral Nutrients. Need for: Mineral ions, soil pH, organic content.

  • The three main nutrients are: Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphorous.
    -Soil organic, it is important to consider also water holding capacities.

Agriculture

  • Agriculture types: Ararable, Pastoral, and Mixed. Also, consider Extensive and intensive.

Increasing Agricultural Yields

  • Crop Rotation.

  • Fertilisers: Organic vs. Inorganic. Apply fertilizer safey for maximum use.
    -Irrigation used for many reasons, but has environmental impacts.

  • Pest/Disease-Control, protect plants or use Bio-Control.
    -Selective breeding.

  • Genetic Modification increases productivity too.

The impact of agriculture on people and the environment.

  • Environmental: affects the soil in many ways
    -Economic: Can affect the prices of crops.
    -Social: Make resources more available to people.

Methods to reduce soil erosion.

Consider: The prevention of soil erosion must take into account other measures
Terracing: terracing for agriculture.
Contour ploughing: contours reduce rainfall runoff.
Bunds: bunds for agriculture.
Maintained covered corps.

Sustainable Agriculture

There are no easy answers, but consider, a integrated approach for sustainable agriculture: