Archaeology in Africa

Archaeology in Africa

Timeline: Southeastern Africa

  • Long History

    • Development of food production, cattle pastoralism, metallurgy, and exchange.

  • Resources

    • Cattle, prestigious items (gold, ivory, copper, glass beads).

  • Historical Sources

    • No written records; reliance on Portuguese histories and oral traditions (e.g., Shona peoples).

  • Chronological Breakdown:

    • AD 1680: Mutapa and Torwa states

    • AD 1450: Great Zimbabwe state (Late Iron Age)

    • AD 1300: Mapungubwe state

    • AD 1200: Bambandyanalo

    • AD 1000: Middle Iron Age (Schroda)

    • AD 900: Early Iron Age in southeastern Africa

    • 500 BC: Chifumbaze Culture near Lake Victoria

Origins of Zimbabwe Culture

  • Iron Metallurgy

    • Introduction to Africa from the Middle East as early as 1200 cal BC; by 500 BC reached the Lake Victoria area of sub-Saharan Africa.

  • Impact of Climate

    • Increased rainfall after AD 1000 allowed for greater grain surpluses (finger millet, pearl millet, sorghum).

    • Sorghum was notably used for brewing beer.

Mapungubwe Overview

Rise of Mapungubwe

  • Location

    • Situated in present-day Botswana, near South Africa, Namibia, and Mozambique.

  • Significance

    • Recognized as a World Heritage Site.

  • Cultural Pattern

    • Represents the first archaeological evidence of the Zimbabwe Pattern, characterized by stone-walled elite residences.

  • Population and Influence

    • Approximately 5,000 inhabitants, influencing an area of 11,500 square miles (not big).

Social Life at Mapungubwe

  • Gendered Areas

    • The Central Cattle Pattern (CCP) delineates gender roles and spaces predating the Zimbabwe pattern.

    • Men's area: kraals, grain storage, court, elite graves, metal production.

    • Women's spaces: wives' dwellings, kitchens, female graves located away from the central area.

    • Status reflected proximity to the chief's residence; the closer one lived, the higher the rank.

  • Elite Residence

    • The chief lived in isolation on a hilltop alongside royal graves, conducting rituals and visited only by relatives and elites under guard.

    • Conducted “rainmaking” rituals.

    • Site abandoned (AD 1290-1300)

Transition to Great Zimbabwe

  • Connection to Mapungubwe

    • Great Zimbabwe located 300 kilometers (186 miles) north, with a population of 18,000 after AD 1290, controlling an area of 34,750 square miles.

  • Architecture

    • The king resided in a stone-walled hilltop palace, while other royals and elites lived in enclosed stone areas.

    • Commoners lived in mud huts (daga). Mix of dung and mud.

Great Enclosure

  • The largest stone structure in southern Africa, interpretations of its function varied from royal residence to initiation site for boys and girls.

Resource Networks and Trade

  • Economy

    • Base of a tribute economy with agricultural surpluses and cattle wealth.

  • Trade Resources

    • Grains, cattle, iron, copper, animal skins, ivory; international ivory trade is notable but later overshadowed by gold during Great Zimbabwe's peak.

Ritual and Religion

  • Gender Roles in Ritual

    • Emergence of male specialists conducting rituals for adequate rainfall between 1000-1200 AD; rituals became secretive over time.

  • Elite Practices

    • Conducted rainmaking rituals on hilltops by elites at Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe.

    • Crocodiles symbolically linked to sacred kingship, representing fearlessness and water(rain).

  • Symbolism of Birds

    • Imagery of raptorial birds(represent power), with soapstone birds found at Great Zimbabwe, representing modern Zimbabwe's nation-state.

Decline of Great Zimbabwe

  • Shift in Trade Routes

    • From AD 1420-1450, trade routes shift to northern rivers like the Zambezi, leading to a decline in Great Zimbabwe's wealth and influence.

  • Emerging Powers

    • The Torwa and Mutapa states grew more powerful, with the Mutapa state potentially founded by Great Zimbabwe elites.

    • Zimbabwe wealth and influence diminshed as they lsot control over the gold, iron, and ivory.

    • Torwa and Mutapa became more powerful as Zimbabwe declined.

    • Portuguese documented encounters with the Mutapa state, marking significant historical accounts of the region.