Notes on The Nature of Language and Improving Language Use

The Nature of Language

• Language is symbolic

  • Examples across languages shown in slides: English (textbook), Swedish (läromedel), Japanese, Bulgarian (учебник), Swahili (kitabu cha darasa)

• Language is usually arbitrary

  • Most words have an arbitrary connection to their meanings; words mean what users of a language choose them to mean

• Language is governed by rules

  • Phonological rules

  • Syntactic rules

  • Semantic rules

  • Pragmatic rules

• Language has layers of meaning

  • Denotative meaning: the literal or dictionary definition

  • Connotative meaning: a word’s implications

• The Semantic Triangle concepts

  • [symbol] ↔ [referent] and [reference] (illustrated with HOME as an example)

• Loaded language

  • Words with strongly positive or negative connotations: e.g., Cancer, Family, Bailout, Freedom

  • Denotative meaning can be emotionally neutral despite loaded connotations

• Clarity varies in language

  • Some language is ambiguous

  • Some language is more abstract than concrete

• Hayakawa’s Ladder of Abstraction

  • Visual/conceptual model for moving between concrete and abstract levels (covered in the slide set)

• Language is bound by context and culture

  • Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: language shapes a person’s view of reality

  • Linguistic determinism

  • Linguistic relativity

  • The merit and scope of Sapir-Whorf have been widely questioned by researchers

• Connections to broader theories

  • Ties to basic semiotics: symbols, references, and referents

  • Links to pragmatics: how context influences meaning

Appreciating the Power of Words

• Language expresses who we are

  • Names define and differentiate us

  • Naming norms vary by sex and age

  • We make assumptions about people based on names (e.g., Richard vs Ricky, Joseph vs Joey, William vs Willy)

• Credibility is shaped by language

  • Forms of language can enhance or diminish credibility:

  • Cliches

  • Dialects

  • Equivocation

  • Weasel words

  • Allness statements

• Language connects us to others

  • Affectionate language can establish and maintain close relationships

  • Giving and receiving affection is beneficial for health

  • Language conveys social information through gossip

• Language separates us from others

  • Criticism: passing judgment on someone or something

  • Threats: declarations of intent to harm

  • Both can cause emotional pain and fear, creating social distance

• Language motivates action

  • Persuasion: the process of convincing people to think or act in a certain way

  • Persuasive strategies mentioned:

  • Anchor-and-contrast approach

  • Norm of reciprocity

  • Social validation principle

Ways We Use and Abuse Language

• Humor can enhance communication and social bonds

• Euphemisms: vague, mild expressions that symbolize something harsher

• Slang: words understood within a particular group

• Defamation

  • Libel and slander

• Profanity: vulgar, obscene language

• Hate speech: profanity aimed at degrading groups of people

Improving Your Use of Language

• Separate opinions from factual claims

  • Factual claims can be verified with evidence and shown to be true or false

  • Examples:

  • Factual: “I live in the United States.”

  • Opinion: “I live in the greatest country on Earth.”

• Practice civil dialogue

  • Be honest with yourself and others

  • Choose words mindfully to say precisely what you wish to say

  • Be multi-present: simultaneously aware of past, present, and future

  • Be open to changing your mind

  • Listen to truly understand others

• Use clearly understandable language

  • Speak at an appropriate level

  • Avoid talking over people’s heads

  • Avoid talking down to people

• Own your thoughts and feelings

  • I-statements claim ownership of what you are thinking or feeling (e.g., “I am mad right now.”)

  • You-statements shift responsibility to the other person (e.g., “You are making me mad.”)

Let’s Review

• What are the defining characteristics of language?

• For what reasons do people use language?

• How can you use language more effectively?

• What is one big takeaway that you learned about yourself and the way you communicate today?

Note: Throughout these notes, keep in mind the interconnections between symbolism, culture, context, and the social functions of language. The slides emphasize both descriptive aspects of how language works and prescriptive guidance on how to use language more effectively, ethically, and with increased self-awareness.