Social Science Paradigms Lecture

Introduction to Social Science Paradigms and Research Methodology

This lecture, delivered by Adam Szymański, Associate Professor at the University of Warsaw on $24$ March $2026$, focuses on the fundamental paradigms governing research methodology in the social sciences. The primary academic sources utilized for this material include Chapter $3$ of Bhattacherjee ($2012$) and Chapter $1.5$ of Sheppard ($2022$). The discussion situates social research within its philosophical foundations, examining how a researcher's worldview dictates every stage of the investigative process, from the initial conception of reality to the specific data sources collected.

Philosophical Foundations of Social Research

The philosophical foundations of social research are structured as a hierarchical progression, where each level informs the next. This structure, adapted from the work of Hay ($2002$, page $64$) and Crotty ($1998$), outlines the relationship between theory and method. At the most fundamental level is Ontology, which asks the question: "What is reality?" It deals with the nature of existence and the categories of being. Moving from ontology to Epistemology, the researcher asks: "What and how can I know reality/knowledge?" Epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief. Together, ontology, epistemology, and axiology (the study of values) comprise the philosophical foundations of a research paradigm.

Following these philosophical underpinnings is the Research Paradigm, which serves as the theoretical stance or the overarching approach used to obtain knowledge. The next level is Methodology, which is the systematization of the approach; it asks: "What approach can we use to get knowledge?" Beneath methodology sits Methods, defined as the specific procedure used to acquire knowledge. This leads to Techniques, which are the specific tools used to acquire knowledge, and finally to Sources, which answer the question: "What data can we collect?"

Defining the Research Paradigm

A paradigm is defined as a specific way of viewing the world. It represents a set of ideas used to understand or explain phenomena, particularly in relation to a specific subject or discipline. Essentially, a research paradigm is a framework that defines what we know, what we can know, and the specific methods by which we can know it. It serves as the "lens" through which a researcher observes and interprets the social world.

Positivism: The Objective Scientific Approach

Positivism served as the dominant scientific paradigm until the mid-$20^{th}$ century. It is guided by three core principles: objectivity, knowability, and deductive logic. The key assumption of positivism is that society can and should be studied empirically and scientifically, much like the natural sciences. In this view, science is strictly limited to what can be observed and measured. Consequently, internal human experiences such as emotions, values, and thoughts are excluded from the scope of scientific research because they cannot be objectively quantified.

From a positivist perspective, society is composed of objective social facts that exist independently of individuals. Society is seen as exerting a direct influence on its members. Research within this paradigm typically relies on Quantitative Data and maintains a strict stance of objectivity to ensure that findings are not tainted by the researcher’s personal biases or interpretations.

Interpretivism: The Subjective Construction of Meaning

In contrast to positivism, Interpretivism argues that it is necessary for researchers to understand the nuanced differences between humans acting as social actors. This paradigm emphasizes conducting research among people as sentient beings rather than as passive objects. The foundational belief is that social order is best studied through the subjective interpretation of the participants involved. This is often achieved through methods like interviewing different participants and reconciling the varied responses based on their own subjective perspectives.

Max Weber ($1864$-$1920$) is a key figure associated with this approach. Interpretivism assumes that reality is constructed through the meanings created by individuals. In this view, human actions are the result of internal meanings and motives rather than external social forces. Research in this paradigm relies heavily on Qualitative Data and focuses on uncovering the subjective meanings behind social phenomena. The researcher’s role is to listen to the subjects and allow them to tell their stories rather than imposing a predetermined objective framework.

Postmodernism and the Problem of Truth

Postmodernism emerged during the mid-to-late $20^{th}$ century as a challenge to established paradigms. Its main assumption is that there is no such thing as objective, knowable truth. Postmodernists argue that we can never truly know an objective truth because the act of studying and reporting others' truths is inherently filtered through the researcher’s own experiences and "truth." Therefore, science is viewed not as a source of certainty but as something probabilistic and based on many contingencies. Every investigation is seen as being influenced by the researcher's own subjective presence in the process.

The Critical Paradigm: Power and Social Change

The Critical Paradigm focuses on issues of power, inequality, and social change. It posits that social science can never be truly objective or value-free, as the researcher is always situated within a social and political context. Unlike other paradigms that may seek to simply describe or understand the world, the critical paradigm argues that scientific investigation should be conducted with the express goal of seeking social change. It is an activist approach to research that aims to expose and challenge power structures and social injustices.