European Union Institutions

Core Functions
- Proposes new EU laws ➜ starting point of ordinary legislative procedure.
- Executes & manages EU policies once adopted (e.g., agriculture, digital agenda, Green Deal).
- Monitors/ensures member-state compliance with EU rules; can launch infringement procedures before the Court of Justice.
Composition
- 27 Commissioners ("College of Commissioners") — exactly one per member state.
- Each commissioner heads a Directorate-General (policy portfolio such as Education, Economy, Environment, etc.).
Appointment Process
- Phase 1: Every national government nominates one commissioner-designate.
- Phase 2: The full team (President + Commissioners) is subjected to a single confirmation vote in the European Parliament.
Significance
- Only body with formal right of initiative for legislation.
- Guardian of the Treaties (Art. 17 TEU). Failure to monitor can undermine uniform application of EU law.

Core Functions
- Co-legislates with the Council of the EU (ordinary legislative procedure, codecision).
- Adopts the entire EU budget together with the Council; can reject it.
- Democratic oversight: questions Commissioners, approves Commission, can pass motions of censure.
- Represents EU citizens directly.
Composition & Organisation
- Total MEPs: 720 (after 2024 allocation).
- MEPs do not sit by nationality but by pan-European political group (e.g., EPP, S&D, Greens/EFA).
- Each MEP has exactly 1 vote independent of home state size.
Election Mechanics
- Direct universal suffrage every 5 years (next: 2029).
- Conducted as parallel national elections; citizens vote for national parties, which join EU-level groups post-election.
Seat Allocation Principle: "Proportionality Degressive"
- Larger states have more MEPs in absolute terms, yet smaller states enjoy higher per-capita representation.
- Minimum per country: 6 seats; maximum: currently 96 seats (Germany).
Key Takeaways
- Together with Commission + Council of the EU, forms the legislative triangle.
- Only directly elected supranational parliament with budgetary power over a multi-state polity.

Core Functions
- Co-legislator with Parliament.
- Coordinates economic & social policies of member states (Ecofin, EPSCO configurations, etc.).
- Concludes international agreements on behalf of the EU.
Composition
- 27 national ministers, configuration changes depending on dossier (e.g., agriculture ministers for CAP).
Decision-Making
- Uses Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) for most areas: need 55\% of states representing 65\% of population.
- Unanimity still required for sensitive matters (taxation, foreign policy, accession).
Selection
- Ministers are not elected for the EU level; they are members of their domestic governments.

Strategic Role
- Sets the overall political direction and priorities (e.g., enlargement, crises, multi-annual financial framework).
- Does not adopt day-to-day legislation.
Composition
- Heads of State or Government from all 27 member states (+ Commission President + European Council President).
Selection
- Leaders obtain membership through national elections; no direct EU ballot.
Illustrative Issues Tackled
- Brexit negotiations trigger article 50 guidance.
- Sanctions packages after geopolitical conflicts.

Functions
- Ensures uniform interpretation and application of EU law across all member states.
- Handles infringement proceedings, preliminary rulings, annulments, and appeals.
Composition
- 27 Judges (one per country) + 11 Advocates-General who deliver independent legal opinions.
Appointment
- Judges and AGs are jointly appointed by national governments for renewable 6-year terms.
Impact Example
- Landmark cases: Van Gend en Loos (direct effect) & Costa v. ENEL (supremacy of EU law).

Core Tasks
- Maintains price stability ➜ inflation target around 2\%.
- Sets key interest rates (main refinancing, deposit facility, marginal lending).
- Conducts monetary policy for the euro area (currently 20 countries).
Governance Structure
- Executive Board: 6 members (President, Vice-President, 4 others).
- Governing Council: Executive Board + Presidents of national central banks of euro-area states.
Selection
- Euro-area governments appoint experts in economics/finance for 8-year non-renewable mandates.
Practical Significance
- Quantitative easing (APP, PEPP) during crises; affects loans, mortgages, investment.

Mandate
- Audits EU revenues & expenditures; identifies errors, fraud, inefficiencies.
- Publishes Annual Report → basis for Parliament’s discharge procedure of the annual budget.
Composition
- 27 Members, one from each state; work in chambers.
Appointment
- Governments nominate; Council appoints after consulting Parliament, term 6 years (renewable).

"Institutional Triangle" for legislation: Commission (proposes) + Parliament (citizens) + Council of the EU (governments).
Checks & Balances
- Parliament votes Commission in/out; ECJ can annul acts; ECA audits spending.
Democratic Layers
- Citizens ➜ Parliament; States ➜ Council; Experts ➜ Commission/ECB/ECJ/ECA – creating multi-level governance.
Ethical & Practical Implications
- Representation vs. efficiency debate: degressive proportionality protects small states but skews equality of vote weight.
- ECB independence raises accountability questions; however, shields policy from short-term politics.
- ECJ supremacy sometimes clashes with national constitutional identity (seen in German FCC judgments).

"3 Cs" propose/approve: Commission (ideas) → Council + Parliament (laws).
European Council = "Big Picture" summit of leaders.
Court of Justice = referee ensuring rules are followed.
ECB = guardian of the euro’s buying power.
ECA = financial watchdog preventing €-waste.