Chapter 7: origins and devlopments of cold war in europe

What caused the rise of the Superpowers?

Impact of WW2 on Europe

Europe was in Ruins

• By the time Germany surrendered in 1945, much of Europe was a shattered, devastated war zone where around 36 million Europeans were killed and much of the infrastructure like roads, railways, bridges and canals were destroyed by fighting or bombing

• There was also no gas, electricity or running water in many of the regions

• As a result, disease and malnutrition were rampant with widespread shortages of food and medicine

• Over 50 million people lost their homes or were forced to leave their homes

• Also further problems in Eastern Europe – violence between members of different ethnic groups continued as well as armed resistance to the way the Soviets had come in and imposed themselves in the region

• Thus, with Europe desperately in the grips of survival, they were in no position to mind the affairs of the world, much less protect the sovereignty of their region.

A New Political Landscape

• The end of WW2 had caused a fundamental shift in the balance of power in international politics

Decline of the Western European Powers

• In 1939, there were three great European powers: Britian, France and Germany

• Britain: even though it was never invaded or defeated, the cost of war had exhausted the resources of its people, industries and empire which left it virtually bankrupt

• France: invaded and occupied by Germany and liberated by the Allies in 1944. However, it was no longer the power it had been

• Germany: with its defeat in 1945, the country laid in ruins

• Thus, Britain, France and Germany, with their lands and resources devastated, with insufficient resources for building up it’s economy, much less restoring its military might, would no longer be dominant players on the world stage in a post-war Europe

Emergence of the Superpowers

• In contrast, both the United States and USSR emerged from the war as superpowers -> term used to describe how the two countries were in a different league from the existing major powers

• This was due to their geographical size and population, as well as the economic output and military strength that they possessed after the war

• With such stark differences in resources and military might between the European powers and USA / USSR, this meant that the two superpowers would play a key role in directing and influencing the major events of the world.

Rise of Early Tensions between the United States and USSR

Competing Ideologies

• US and USSR both had different ideologies

• US and other democratic countries opposed communism from the beginning of communist rule in USSR

• Most politicians and business leaders in US hated and feared communist ideas 🡪 threat to their way of life

• USSR believed the US was selfishly building its own economic empire and political influence in the world

• In terms of economic differences, USA follows capitalism, which is the free market economy where individuals and companies are free to develop, own and control resources and capital. The government would only need to regulate the market and ensure that competition is kept free and fair. In contrast, USSR is under communism, which is the command economy. The government plans and allocates all aspects of the economy and distributes resources to individuals and companies based on their assessment of what the economy should produce. All land and means of production are owned and provided by the state.

• In terms of political differences, USA is under liberal democracy. The country is governed by two or more political parties. The government comprise of representatives elected by the people where they could choose among two or more parties to vote for. The individuals are empowered with various freedom (eg. of speech, assembly, vote, religion). USSR, is ruled under the Soviet Communist State where the country is governed by a single political party (the Communist party) and power is held by the party. People could only vote for the Communist Party. Freedom of the people were curbed (especially criticism of the state / government leaders).

• Such competing ideologies (in terms of economic and political) fostered mistrust, as USA and USSR viewed each others’ actions suspiciously. Both felt that their way of life was under threat – USA felt that the aim of communism was worldwide revolution, while USSR felt that capitalist USA would want to expand its political and economic influence worldwide which would give rise to a tense relationship and heightened competition to form the foundations of the Cold War between the two countries.

History of Suspicion and Mistrust before 1939

• USSR’s communist vision was aligned to the Communist Manifesto which called for worldwide communist revolutions to overthrow capitalist states 🡪 this greatly alarmed the US and Western European democratic countries, fearing that communism would spread in their countries and cause similar revolutions.

• During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, it was decided that Germany would not be broken up due to fears of a new communist state in Russia and its consequences. They wanted Germany to be a barrier to (the spread of) communism which highlights their suspicion and fear towards Russia.

• Between 1918 and 1921, Russia found itself in a bitter civil war between the communists (the Reds) and their opponents (the Whites). US and British troops intervened (interfered) on the side of the Whites, hoping to prevent a communist victory.

• In the US during the 1920s, there was a Red Scare which resulted in the US government arresting and imprisoning many people (usually immigrants from Russia) accusing them of being communist agents even though most were innocent.

• In the 1930s, the British and French adopted a policy of appeasement towards Hitler’s expansionist policy. To some extent, this was driven by the fear that USSR was trying to spread communism by force and the British hoped that Hitler’s Germany would oppose communism. To USSR, the policy of appeasement threatened its security as it implies that Hitler was allowed to take over Eastern Europe.

• In August 1939, USSR signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with Germany, promising not to attack each other. US and world were surprised as earlier, they were in discussion with USSR with regard to forming an alliance against Hitler. Thus, this led to suspicion and wariness on the intentions of USSR by the Allied Powers.

‘Marriage of Convenience’

• Wartime alliance between Britian, US and USSR was a ‘marriage of convenience’ as they fought a common enemy

• However, tensions within this alliance would grow during the war

• For example, Stalin faced immense pressure from Germany’s onslaught on the Soviet Union.

• He urged US and Britain to quickly open up a second front in France so as to divert the German forces and relieve this pressure on Soviet Union as well as end the war as quickly as possible.

• However, US and Britain only agreed to open the second front through Operation Overlord in 1944, when they met a year earlier in 1943 during the Tehran Conference in Iran.

• Stalin felt that the Allies were delaying the opening of the second front on purpose to minimize their own losses and weaken the USSR.

• This perspective caused Stalin to deepen his distrust of the United States and Britain with regards to their support of USSR in the war against Germany.

Breakdown of The Wartime Alliance: Yalta and Potsdam Conference

Yalta Conference

Differing Views between USA and USSR when the war ended

Other disagreements and compromises about post-war Poland

• Stalin wanted to move the Soviet border westwards into Poland; argued that Poland could, in turn, move its border westwards into German territory

• Incurred the unhappiness from Churchill and Roosevelt

• However, Churchill persuaded Roosevelt to accept it as long as USSR did not interfere in Greece, where the British were trying to prevent a communist takeover

• Churchill’s condition was accepted by Stalin

• Thus, clashes in aims and actions had already appeared between USSR and USA.

• These would contribute to the raising of tension between these two powers.

Potsdam Conference

Change in Leadership

• President Harry Truman took over President Roosevelt

• Assumed power after the war-time alliance between USSR and USA had broken down

• Concerned about the potential threat USSR posed to the security of Western Europe and was determined to get tough and challenge Stalin on big issues

• Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Britain’s PM halfway through the Conference

• Left the bulk of foreign policy to his foreign secretary, Ernest Bevin, who was strongly anti-communist

• Thus, most of Britain’s foreign policy (towards USSR) were closely aligned with Truman’s anti-communist policies

• The change in leadership meant that leaders from USA and Britain were less willing to negotiate / give-in to Stalin’s expansion / demands which would lead to greater instances of blow-ups in their future meetings / widening gap in their relationship

Increasing Soviet Control

• Having liberated the Eastern European states from the Germans, the Soviet troops remained in the territories to exert their control (over the Baltic states, Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania).

• Poland was a source of tension / contention among the Allies

• The set-up of a communist government in Poland broke the agreements made during the Yalta conference

• In addition, Stalin also encouraged communists in the other states to take power

• Britain was concerned over USSR’s actions in Poland as they had gone to war (with Nazi Germany) over the country

• Conversely, Stalin’s justification for taking over Poland was for the security of USSR as they were invaded by Germany twice through Poland

• In fact, the USSR’s occupation of Eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks

• Thus, with the expansion of USSR forces in Eastern Europe, this will raise the tension between the powers as they view the move as militarily aggressive.

The Manhattan Project

• USA was secretly developing a new weapon – the atomic bomb - to end the war

• It was a state-funded nuclear development programme called the Manhattan Project

• US kept it from the USSR until the Potsdam Conference, where Truman privately informed Stalin that the US had successfully tested the atomic bomb

• This deepened Stalin’s suspicions towards US intention when they chose not to tell the USSR about the bomb earlier

Major Disagreements

Disagreements over Germany

• Stalin wanted to cripple Germany completely; this was opposed by Truman as he did not want to repeat the mistake of the Treaty of Versailles

• Stalin also wanted compensation from Germany; initially agreed by Truman, but he later changed his mind

• Stalin saw this as Truman wanting to protect Germany and became suspicious of him

Disagreement over Eastern Europe

• It was agreed that Eastern Europe would come under the Soviet Sphere of influence

• Stalin took it as being able to set-up communists government loyal to him and keep them under close control

• Truman felt that this was more than what he had expected

• Truman suspected Stalin of desiring to control the whole of Europe

• All these disagreements caused both sides to be suspicious of each others’ actions/intentions as well as caused tension to rise between both sides.

Worsening Relations after Potsdam

The Atomic Bomb

• Truman may be attempting to intimidate Stalin with information about US’s new weapon- atomic bomb

• Stalin did not react to the news as he did not want to show Truman that he was concerned

• In fact, he had already ordered Soviet technicians and scientists to develop an atomic bomb before the Potsdam Conference

• By 1949, both superpowers had atomic weapons

• This started the nuclear arms race between the two countries which meant that there is always the threat of a nuclear war during this Cold War period

Iron Curtain and Soviet Control of Eastern Europe

• Even though the issue of Soviet control of Eastern Europe has caused tensions at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the situation continued to worsen

• Stalin was determined to control the governments of Eastern Europe to protect USSR from future attacks

• Thus, even when elections were held in the Eastern European states, Stalin adopted the ‘Salami Tactics’ and removed political opponents one by one to make sure communist governments led by politicians loyal to him took power in those states

• USSR would first support the establishment of coalition governments in Eastern European countries

• The communists would work with other parties at the beginning but gradually, they would take control by isolating and suppressing other parties in the coalition

• These parties would be banned, the leaders arrested and exiled

• Some were beaten or even murdered

• By ‘slicing’ the opposition bit by bit, Soviet control over Eastern Europe was achieved through Stalin’s salami tactics

• For example, Jan Masaryk in Czechoslovakia believed passionately in democracy

• He was a popular politician who defeated the communists in several elections

• His phone was tapped and he was followed by Soviet agents

• In September 1947, an attempt on his life was made with a bomb sent in a parcel

• In March 1948, he was found dead below his bedroom window. Official verdict was suicide but most historians think he was murdered

• Stalin saw the control over Eastern Europe as logical as it was the traditional route through which enemies from the West attacked Russia

• Thus, by controlling the region, he is creating buffer states which would make it more challenging for others to invade the USSR

• Truman saw Stalin’s actions as evidence of him building an empire. However, people in US were weary of conflicts and unwilling for US to be dragged into international politics 🡪 Stalin’s actions were none of their concern

• Truman arranged for Churchill, who was still highly respected, to give a speech in US.

• In the speech, Churchill warned of the dangers posed by USSR and used the term ‘the Iron Curtain’ – impending danger posed by USSR of cutting off / blocking the ‘free-world’

• This speech alarmed many Americans and gave Truman the attention and support he wanted to get US involved in international affairs. It also drew angry response from the Soviet media and Stalin himself

• With the steady encroachment and expansion of USSR influence in Eastern Europe and the heightened alarmed from the US of such communist expansion in the world, this brought the two superpowers on a head-on collision

Intensification of Superpower Rivalry – 1947 to 1955

Truman Doctrine and Containment

• Truman’s continued tough stance against Stalin was partly influenced by this document called the ‘Long Telegram’

• Sent by George Kennan, a senior US diplomat, it viewed USSR as intent on spreading communism across the world and destroying the democratic capitalist way of life of the US and urged US to take a forceful stand against the USSR

• This resulted in the start of US containment policy - the Truman Doctrine - where the US would provide money, military equipment and advice to democratic countries perceived to be threatened by communist influences

Developments in Turkey and Greece

• After WW2, Greece was run by the British until a new government could be set up.

• The country was divided between the Greek Communist Party which wanted a communist state and the Greek Royalist who wanted a return of the monarch

• In 1946, a civil war broke out between the two sides

• British did not have the resources to quell the civil war; as a result, they announced their withdrawal in Feb 1947

• Thus, Truman faced the prospect of another European state (Greece) falling to communism

• Stalin sought to gain influence in Turkey so as to gain access to the Turkish Straits

• This was important to enable Soviet ships to sail from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea

• Truman was worried that if Turkey became an ally of USSR, Stalin might use it as a stepping stone to spread communist influence in the Middle East

• Additionally, this area was important to the United States because of its oil reserves

• Truman exaggerated the scale of the threat in Greece and Turkey to gain support from the people in the United States; he was also supported by American newspapers which supported Truman’s policy of increasing US involvement in international affairs

• In May 1947, US Congress passed the Greece and Turkey Aid Bill which was a package of US$400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey

• Secured Turkey as a US ally and propped up the monarchist government in Greece

• However, this move also worsened relations between Stalin and Truman (Stalin actually kept his promise to Churchill in 1945 of not helping the communists in Greece

Marshall Plan

• It was US’s economic aid plan to help rebuild Europe’s shattered economies

• US injected US$13 billion in the form of food, machinery, animals and countless items which were shipped to democratic countries in Europe

• This was to make people work and earn money so that they would feel positive towards capitalism and not be attracted to communism

• US allies were grateful for such generous gesture

• However, it should also be seen that US was also looking after its own interests

• Europe’s recovery would mean a ready market for US industries to export their goods

• The largest amounts of financial aid from the Marshall Plan went to US’s closest political allies, Britain and France

• Countries which did not have democratic, capitalist systems did not receive such financial support (eg. Italy did not receive any aid until a non-communist government took power in 1948)

• Thus, the Marshall Plan provided a massive economic boost to Western Europe and brought about a speedy recovery for the countries, especially for Britain, France and war-ravaged West Germany

• All these helped to reinforce the bond between US and its allies against communism

USSR’s response to US containment policies (Marshall Plan)

Cominform

• Members were the leaders of the communist parties in Eastern Europe

• Published propaganda to unite the communist states in Europe

• Ensured that satellite states implemented a Soviet-style communism and trade mainly with other Cominform countries

• Used to tighten control over the satellite states and ensure that US could not gain any political influence over them

• Eastern European states were told which policies they should follow which included the rejection of financial support from the Marshall Plan and cutting off trade and any other kind of contact with countries which did not belong to Cominform

• Yugoslavia, led by Marshall Tito, argued with Stalin and was subsequently expelled from Cominform 🡪 followed by a bitter and long-lasting feud between Tito and Stalin

Comecon

• Ensured that the satellite states were free from any kind of control or influence from the US

• Members would trade mostly with one another rather than with the West

• Even though the satellite states were promised the same benefits similar to the Marshall Plan, in reality, Comecon benefitted the USSR more than any of its other members (eg. Poland forced to sell its coal to USSR at 1/10 the price it could have sold on the open market)

Why did Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon?

• He was appalled and angered by USA’s Marshall Plan

• Saw USA as tying Europe to it (through its economic aid)

• However, unlike USSR, USA did not need a defensive buffer zone

• Stalin was concerned US domination of Western Europe was the first step for US to advance into Eastern Europe and so threaten Soviet control

• In addition, Stalin also suspected USA’s involvement in Germany’s quick recovery was due to the latter’s intention to use Germany against USSR

• Even though Stalin could do little about what was happening in Western Europe, he did tightened his grip on the Eastern European states and ordered them to not to have anything to do with the Marshall Plan

• Turned them into satellite states which were forced to stay close to the USSR

• Achieved these by creating two new organisations 🡪 Cominform and Comecon

Berlin Blockade

• US drew up the Morgenthau Plan which involved the breaking up of Germany and dismantling of its industries to ensure that it would never be strong enough to wage another war

• Resulted in the implementation of the four zones of occupation in Germany

• Berlin, situated within the Soviet Zone, was also divided into four zone of occupation

• With increasing tension between the East and West, Truman began to see Germany as a possible ally against USSR

• Britain and France were also keen for Germany to rebuild its own economy as controlling their zones was a drain on resources

• Early 1948, US, France and Britain combined their zones into a single economic unit known as Trizone

• Also introduced a new currency in this new unit

• Stalin saw US as rebuilding his old enemy 🡪 thought he could make a point by forcing them out of Berlin

• Thus, Stalin carried out the Berlin Blockade where he cut the rail and road links from the Allied zones to West Berlin

• Water and power supplies were also disrupted

• Clever scheme as if the Allies stayed in Berlin, the people in their zones would suffer

• Truman countered this blockade by ordering the Berlin Airlift where USA and its allies supported West Berlin with coal, food and medicine by air

• Eventually, Stalin gave up and lifted the blockade in May 1949

Consequence of the Berlin Blockade

Creation of East Germany

• In May 1949, Truman announced the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) made up of a united British, French and US zones

• Stalin announced that the Soviet Zone would become the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)

• Similarly, Berlin was also divided into East and West Berlin which involved the erection of a concrete wall dividing East and West, known as the Berlin Wall

• This became one of the key symbols of the Cold War

Creation of NATO

• At the height of the Berlin Blockade, the Western powers met and signed an agreement to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949

• The members agreed to go to war if any member was attacked 🡪 signifying to Stalin that the US would intervene in Western Europe if necessary

• NATO countries could provide US forces with secure bases in Europe; which would also guarantee their protection from a possible Soviet attack

Creation of The Warsaw Pact

• USSR saw the NATO alliance as a threat by the Western powers

• Other developments served to raise the tension between the two superpowers

• In 1949, USSR announced development of its own atomic bomb

• China became a communist country in 1949

• War broke out in the Korean Peninsula between communist and anti-communist forces in 1950

• West Germany was invited to join NATO in 1955 which USSR saw as a looming threat to its security

• Thus, in response, USSR created the Warsaw Pact in May, 1955 where all communist states in Eastern Europe joined, except Yugoslavia

• Its members agreed that if one state was threatened, the rest would help to defend it

• Warsaw Pact strengthened USSR by effectively giving them command of all the armies of the satellite states

• Thus, tensions had greatly increased as Europe is now divided into two different militarily armed camps

• As a result, each side put in much resources and planning to stop a possible invasion by the other side (US military forces were stationed in bases across Europe while Warsaw Pact members stationed troops in each member’s territory in case of NATO attack

• It also allowed Soviet rule to be entrenched in Eastern Europe as Soviet troops dealt with the various protests and uprisings in Eastern Europe (Soviet tanks and troops forcefully quelled a nation-wide revolt in Hungary where thousands were killed and injured and a quarter-million Hungarians fled its shores)