Ethics Lecture Review (GEN 006)
Fundamentals of Ethics
Ethics is a primary branch of philosophy concerned with questions of morality, specifically regarding what constitutes right and wrong, good and bad, and just and unjust. It provides a structured framework for understanding and evaluating human behaviors in the context of their moral consequences. This discipline involves the examination of principles, values, and norms that direct both individual and collective conduct.
Key Concepts in Ethics
Moral Principles: These provide the foundation for ethical reasoning and decision-making. They are defined as fundamental beliefs about what is morally right or wrong.
Ethical Theories: Philosophical frameworks that offer distinct approaches to resolving moral dilemmas. Featured theories include:
Utilitarianism: Focusing on the consequences and the greatest good.
Deontology: Focusing on duty and rule-adherence.
Virtue Ethics: Focusing on the character and virtues of the individual.
Ethical Decision-Making: A complex process of evaluating actions by looking at the resulting consequences, the specific intentions of the actor, and the guiding principles that should govern behavior in moral situations.
Distinction Between Ethics and Morality
While often used interchangeably, ethics and morality possess distinct definitions and applications.
Ethics: This is the systematic and formalized study of the principles governing human conduct. It is typically theoretical, involving academic discourse and philosophical inquiry. Ethical principles often vary across different professions, cultures, and belief systems.
Morality: This refers to the specific set of values and beliefs that guide individuals or communities in distinguishing right from wrong. Morality is deeply influenced by societal, religious, and cultural norms. It is considered more subjective than ethics and varies significantly between different groups and individuals.
Human Acts versus Acts of Humans
A critical distinction in moral philosophy is made between acts that involve free will and those that occur naturally.
Human Acts
Human acts are those that engage an individual's knowledge and free will. They are purposeful and morally conscious. Examples include:
Loving one's enemy.
Praying to God.
Sacrificing for others.
Acts of Humans
These are actions performed by humans that occur naturally without the engagement of the intellect or the will. They lack intentional or reasoned moral character. Examples include:
Breathing.
Blinking.
Sneezing.
The Nature of Human Freedom and Divine Purpose
Man is viewed as a human person created by God with the inherent capacity to initiate and govern his own actions. The ultimate design of the human person is to seek God and achieve perfection through union with Him.
Intellect and Will: Human freedom is rooted in these two faculties, empowering individuals to act or refrain from acting. These choices shape a person’s life toward either goodness and perfection or toward sin.
Slavery of Sin: While the consistent practice of good enhances freedom, doing evil leads to what is termed the "slavery of sin" (Romans 6:17). Until the point of union with God, individuals remain open to the choice between growth in perfection or the path of sin.
Genuine Freedom: True freedom is not absolute license; it is the power to develop inherent talents responsibly. It aligns with what is good, just, and true, and seeks to live for others and for God. Rejecting God’s love enslaves human freedom, a consequence of original Sin and subsequent historical sins. Abuse of freedom is a primary contributor to humanity’s suffering.
The Role of Christ: Christ’s grace serves to complement human freedom. It fosters an inner freedom by making the individual receptive to God’s Spirit. Prayer is a tool used to seek freedom from harmful influences, allowing one to fulfill God's will freely.
Responsibility and Moral Culpability
Every deliberate choice renders an individual accountable for their actions. This accountability is assessed based on the object chosen, the intentions, and the circumstances.
Accountability and Mastery
Individuals gain mastery over their actions through virtue, understanding of the good, and self-discipline. Human acts, because they are free, are subject to praise or blame.
Mitigating Factors
Certain factors can diminish or entirely nullify personal responsibility for an act. These include:
Ignorance.
Fear.
Habits.
Attachments.
Other external or internal influences.
The Principle of Willed Action
Personal responsibility is highlighted through biblical examples, such as God’s questioning of Eve and Cain in the Book of Genesis regarding their willed actions.
Direct vs. Indirect Voluntariness: A person is responsible for willed actions, whether they are direct or indirectly voluntary (resulting from negligence or ignorance).
Culpability and Intent: A person is not culpable for an evil act they did not intend as a means to an end. For example, if a person causes unintentional harm while aiding another, they do not entail guilt. However, a drunk driver causing harm is held accountable because the state leading to the harm was voluntary.
Moral Governance and Civil Rights
Respect for the freedom of others is a fundamental necessity. The exercise of freedom, particularly in moral and religious contexts, is an inherent human right. Civil authorities are tasked with safeguarding this right within the boundaries of public order. Moral deviations are seen as undermining the cultural prerequisites required for genuine freedom, effectively confining individuals within themselves.
Evaluation of the Moral Act
The moral character of any human act is determined by three essential components: the object, the intention, and the circumstances. For an act to be considered morally good, all three elements must align positively.
1. The Object
This is the specific action or behavior being performed, independent of the motive. Some acts are considered "intrinsically evil" based on their object alone, regardless of intentions or circumstances. Examples of intrinsically evil acts that can never be justified include:
Murder.
Blasphemy.
Adultery.
Fornication.
2. The Intention
This is the purpose or motive driving the action. It heavily influences the moral character of the act.
Good Intentions vs. Evil Means: A good intention cannot justify the use of evil means to achieve a goal.
Corruption of Good Acts: An evil intention can corrupt an otherwise good act. For example, giving alms is a good act, but doing so solely for personal acclaim and recognition renders the act morally corrupt.
3. The Circumstances
These are the contextual factors surrounding the action. While circumstances can affect the moral evaluation (e.g., increasing or decreasing the gravity of an act), they cannot transform an inherently evil act into a good one. It is impermissible to do evil even if a perceived good outcome is pursued.
Classifications of Human Acts
Human acts are further categorized to better understand their philosophical and ethical dimensions.
Interior and Exterior Acts
Interior Acts: Actions that occur within the individual, such as thoughts, desires, and specific intentions.
Exterior Acts: Actions that manifest externally through physical behaviors or bodily movements.
Moral Quality of Acts
Good Acts: Actions that are morally upright and aligned with virtues like honesty, kindness, and justice.
Bad Acts: Actions that are morally wrong or harmful, such as stealing, lying, or causing injury to others.
Indifferent Acts: Actions that possess no intrinsic moral significance and are considered morally neutral, such as the choice of what to wear or what to eat.
Fundamental Constituents of Human Acts
Knowledge and Freedom: The capacity to choose and perform actions based on rational deliberation and will.
Responsibility: The moral accountability one holds for their deliberate choices and actions.
Scriptural Reflection
Matthew 6:33: "But seek ye first the kingdom of God and His righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you."