Notes on A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America
The Nature of Conspiracy Belief
Conspiracy beliefs are attempts to delineate and explain evil by positing hidden power structures that control events and destinies.
Core features across conspiracy theories:
View history as guided by intentional design, not randomness.
Distinct split between good and evil actors; outsiders (the ‘Other’) are implicated in controlling events.
The conspiracy is often presented as a coherent, overarching system rather than a loose collection of rumors.
Three guiding principles commonly found in conspiracy theories (as identified by Barkun):
Nothing happens by accident; events are the result of deliberate will.
Everything is connected; patterns are everywhere, though hidden from plain view.
Appearances can be deceptive; innocent-looking agents may be covertly malicious.
Conspiracy and secrecy are tightly linked; Barkun distinguishes two forms of secrecy:
Type I: secret group acting secretly (e.g., The Protocols and Illuminati myths).
Type II: known groups with secret activities (benign-knowing public face but with concealed actions).
Type III: known groups with secret activities (two-level operation: benign on the surface, sinister underneath).
Type IV: open associations in democracies (e.g., political parties) whose activities are public.
Conspiracy theories span a spectrum by scope:
Event conspiracies: explain a single or discrete event (e.g., Kennedy assassination).
Systemic conspiracies: aim for control of a country or region; often centered on a single evil organization.
Superconspiracies: nested or linked conspiracies, with a distant all-powerful mastermind at the top.
Empirical soundness in conspiracy theory is debated:
The conspiracy literature often imitates scholarly apparatus (citations, evidence) but remains nonfalsifiable because sweeping claims are hard to test against reality.
Paradox: the more sweeping the claims, the less relevant evidence becomes; conspiracists perceive external evidence as planted by conspirators.
Stratagems used when confronted with doubt include: alleged authentic documents slipping from conspirators’ control; disavowing mass media as part of the conspiracy; appeal to stigmatized knowledge to claim empirical grounding.
Conspiracists’ relationship to paranoia and millennialism:
Hofstadter linked political paranoia to millennial discourse; conspiracy beliefs can reflect a broader panic about evil power.
Conspiracism is not a necessary or sufficient condition for millennialism; improvisational millennialism often blends multiple traditions.
Defining Conspiracy and Secrecy
Definition of conspiracy belief (per Barkun): the belief that an organization, made up of individuals or groups, acts covertly to achieve malevolent ends.
Conspiracism vs. paranoia:
Conspiracism can be framed as political paranoia when it ascribes malevolent intent to power structures.
Hofstadter’s Paranoid Style notes that political paranoia targets nations and cultures rather than individuals; conspiracy theories can serve a similar function but with broader targets.
Secrecy and knowledge validation:
Conspiracy theories often claim their own empirical basis and present elaborate evidence; yet, they tend to form closed systems that resist falsification.
The self-justifying loop: information doubted by conspiracists is dismissed as planted by the conspirators; mainstream institutions are suspects of suppressing truth.
Paranoia and millennialism:
Millennial anxieties provide fertile ground for conspiratorial thinking, offering a narrative where evil will be defeated by a hidden, organized force at the end of history.
Types of Conspiracy Theories
Event conspiracies: limited to a definable event (e.g., Kennedy assassination; TWA Flight 800; black church burnings).
Systemic conspiracies: a single, overarching plot seeks to subdue a country or region; e.g., Jewish, Masonic, or Catholic conspiracies.
Superconspiracies: nested conspiracies combining multiple plots, sometimes spanning centuries and involving a global power elite.
Empirical structures:
Conspiracy literature often presents a narrative of sources and evidence that imitates scholarly work, but the core claims tend to be nonfalsifiable.
A common feature is the “hidden hand” motif: power and information are controlled by elites who manipulate knowledge and events.
The Empirical Soundness of Conspiracy Theories
Conspiracy theories often claim to be empirically testable, but their breadth makes falsification difficult.
The more sweeping the conspiracy, the more the evidence is reinterpreted as being planted by conspirators when challenged.
The paradox of parsimony: sweeping theories provide simple, coherent explanations for complex realities, yet their simplicity undermines testability.
Believers use several stratagems to maintain a self-authenticating system:
Access to alleged authentic documents beyond standard channels.
Distancing themselves from mainstream institutions; portraying themselves as avoiding mind control.
Building stigmatized-knowledge claims that appear empirical due to their alleged illicit status.
Conspiracy Theory and Paranoia
Paranoia and conspiracism share origins in the perception of a hidden, malevolent order.
The relationship between paranoia and millennialism is complex; conspiracism can prefigure or accompany millennial expectations but is neither necessary nor sufficient for millennialism.
Dualism underpins conspiracist worldviews: good vs. evil with a hidden conflict at the end of history; this sometimes leads to antimillenarian conclusions when the conspirators appear invincible.
Conspiracy Beliefs and Millennialism
Millennialism has two traditional streams:
Religious (biblical or scriptural end-times)
Secular (political, nationalist, or ideological end-times)
A third, newer form appears: improvisational millennialism, which bricolages diverse sources (religious, secular, occult, New Age, etc.).
Improvisational millennialism is characterized by:
Eclectic borrowings from unrelated sources to form novel belief systems.
Resistance to any single orthodox tradition; beliefs may cross religious, political, and scientific boundaries.
The reservoir of ideas includes: rejected knowledge, cultic milieu, and stigmatized knowledge claims.
The Reservoirs: Rejected Knowledge, Cultic Milieu, and Stigmatized Knowledge
Rejected Knowledge (Webb): occult beliefs as knowledge rejected by the Establishment; source of “outer” or occult ideation.
Cultic Milieu (Campbell): a social environment that gives rise to new religious movements; includes beliefs and practices, social networks, and media channels; hostile to orthodox authority, but contains unifying features like opposition to dominant orthodoxies and procedural mobility across movements.
Stigmatized Knowledge Claims: knowledge claims that are marginalized by mainstream institutions; five varieties:
Forgotten knowledge
Superseded knowledge
Ignored knowledge
Rejected knowledge
Suppressed knowledge
Stigmatized knowledge claims are empirically grounded in some cases but the epistemology is nontraditional; their stigmatization often acts as evidence of truth, a self-validating cycle that fuels conspiracism.
The reservoir concept explains how improvisational millennialists draw on disparate sources (e.g., Atlantis, Shambhala, UFOs, superseded scientific theories) to build new systems of belief.
New World Order Conspiracies I: The New World Order and the Illuminati
The New World Order (NWO) emerges as a unifying conspiracy for religious and secular conspiracists.
Core elements claimed by NWO conspiracy theories include:
Subversion of republican institutions via emergency powers; subordination to a world government; private militaries; foreign troops on U.S. soil; mass surveillance; mind control; a global economy under a cashless system; and a hidden hierarchy of conspirators.
Two streams of origin converged:
Religious millenarianism (Antichrist narrative; dispensational premillennialism).
Secular pseudoscholarship (secret societies and historical conspiracies).
The Antichrist figure (in dispensational premillennialism) involves a global dictator supported by a network of institutions, technology, and mass psychology; later conceived as part of a broader anti-Christian conspiracy.
The Antichrist narrative integrated with modern technologies (TV, computers) to explain threats to human freedom in the modern age.
The Illuminati and the History of Secret Societies
The Bavarian Illuminati (1776) founded by Adam Weishaupt; secret rituals; dissolution by government in 1787.
19th–20th century legends expanded Illuminati into a model for modern conspiracism, especially when linked to Jews and occultism (Nesta Webster, Lady Queenborough).
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (fake 1905 Russian document) became a central anti-Semitic text; later used to link Illuminati to a broader Jewish conspiracy.
Post-WWII Illuminati literature fused with modern secret-society groups (e.g., CFR, Trilateral Commission) and spread into the Christian right and UFO subcultures.
Modern authors promoted “superconspiracies” of nested conspiracies centered on Illuminati, the CFR, Bilderbergers, and other elite groups, often tying them to global finance and political power.
Pat Robertson’s The New World Order (1991) popularized the Illuminati-laden version of the NWO to evangelical audiences.
Illuminati literature expands with new figures (Cooper, Todd, Marrs, Icke) who incorporate new motifs (UFOs, reptilians, Area 51) into Illuminati conspiracy theories.
New World Order Conspiracies II: A World of Black Helicopters
The period after the Oklahoma City bombing (1995) popularized black helicopters as a symbol of a hidden government and a world takeover.
Three major allegations associated with black helicopters:
The presence of unmarked, covert military aircraft serving as the advance guard of the New World Order.
A network of FEMA concentration camps to detain dissidents.
Mind-control technologies enabling the government to control the populace.
These ideas spread through militia circles, fringe publications, and films (notably Conspiracy Theory and The X-Files).
The New World Order narrative uses the black helicopters to symbolize a controlling, coercive power and to provide a tangible, visible emblem of conspiracy.
The literature distinguishes among modest conspiracies (e.g., CFR/TC membership charts) and superconspiracies that weave a broader, more opaque scheme.
The Conspiracy’s Members and Networks
The leading conspiratorial networks include:
Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)
Trilateral Commission (TC)
Bilderbergers
U.S. and European elite foundations and think tanks
The CFR and TC are often depicted as the central nodes of a global conspiracy, linked with banks, media, government, and industry in diagrams that spread through conspiracy literature.
The network approach (superconspiracies) posits an interlocking directorate of conspirators spanning multiple sectors and organizations.
Some writers (McManus, Abraham) provide membership rosters and elaborate charts showing how power flows through these elites to shape global policy.
Black Helicopters, Concentration Camps, and Mind Control
Black helicopters: emblematic, symbolic representation of secret power with no identifiable origin; some theorists linked them to the UN and foreign troops on U.S. soil.
Concentration camps: purported closed networks of detention facilities controlled by FEMA or other federal agencies; maps and lists are used to enhance perceived plausibility, even when many locations are existing facilities.
Mind control: origins in CIA-funded experiments (MK-Ultra, 1949–1973) and the broader claim of a technological system to shape human behavior; the literature links mind-control programs to broader conspiracy theories about world domination.
The literature notes that while there is some historical basis for these claims (e.g., MK-Ultra), there is little empirical support for the grand conspiracy claims (e.g., perfected mind-control technologies).
UFO Conspiracy Theories, 1975–1990
Early UFO conspiracism gradually fused with New World Order ideas, producing new hybrid myths.
Phase 1 (roughly 1975–1980):
Emergence of implant stories (in abductee narratives) and cattle mutilation myths; some NA themes correlated with end-time concerns.
TheMJ-12 papers (Majestic-12) in 1984–1987 introduced a “secret government” behind the alien presence.
George Andrews’s 1986 Extra-Terrestrials among Us framed a conspiracy centered on a hidden government that manipulates world events via aliens.
John Lear and William Moore published MJ-12 materials; the public debate centered on whether MJ-12 documents were authentic or forged.
Phase 2 (mid-1980s onward):
UFO conspiracy theories merged with militia and far-right ideas, including terms like “shadow government,” “Black helicopters,” and FEMA camps.
Milton William Cooper emerged as a central figure, linking the Illuminati, UFOs, and a mass audience; his works fused disinformation with a broad conspiracy framework (e.g., Behold a Pale Horse).
Standout themes: Area 51, Dulce base, subterranean tunnels; Shaver Mystery (inner-earth) fused with Shaver’s reptoid lore and later with modern UFO narratives.
The Shaver Mystery (Richard S. Shaver): pulp-fiction style stories about a subterranean civilization (deros vs. teros) that later fed into inner-earth and UFO lore; the line between fiction and claimed fact becomes blurred through marketing and belief.
The inner-earth/reptilian motif becomes a significant subtheme within UFO conspiracy theories, eventually intersecting with Icke’s reptilian hypothesis.
The New World Order and the Illuminati in UFO Conspiracy Theories
Stan Deyo’s Cosmic Conspiracy linked the Illuminati to Alternative 3 and to an alien space program; Deyo fused premillennialism with the hidden world narrative.
Milton William Cooper developed two Illuminati-UFO “superconspiracies”: an alien-invasion hoax to secure a space-based New World Order, and a real alien collaboration with conspirators to bring about world domination.
David Icke expanded into reptilian conspiracy theories, connecting the Illuminati, the UN, CFR/TC, and extraterrestrials operating across dimensions; his work blends New Age spirituality with extraterrestrial entities and a global elite controlling the world.
The Phoenix publications (Hatonn, Ramtha lineage) provided a modern channel for anti-Semitic conspiracy tropes, bending traditional conspiracy narratives toward a broader anti-Semitic subspecies of the modern UFO conspiracy.
9/11 Conspiracies: The First Phase and The Second Phase
The 9/11 attacks catalyzed a new wave of conspiracy theories; the official narrative prompted rivals to propose alternative explanations.
Phase 1 (post–9/11, 2001–2002):
Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice and the Journal of 9/11 Studies formed to critique the official accounts.
David Ray Griffin and Peter Dale Scott argued for broader conspiratorial explanations (false flags, deep political conspiracies).
Loose Change (2005) and Zeitgeist (2007) popularized conspiracy theories for broader audiences, though with varying degrees of plausibility.
The Loose Change films argued for controlled demolition; Zeitgeist expanded into critiques of religion and finance, weaving together a broader conspiracy framework.
Phase 2 (2002 onward):
The movement diversified across media, including web-based platforms and independent films; a broader conspiracy ecosystem formed, linking 9/11 to anti-government and anti-establishment beliefs.
The 9/11 conspiracy subculture explored novel cross-domain connections (religion, finance, and geopolitics) to explain the attacks.
Barack Obama: Birthers and Beyond
Birther theories (2008–2012) claimed Obama was not a natural-born U.S. citizen; these claims spurred vast online activity and political controversy.
The birther movement intersected with broader conspiracy theories (9/11, FEMA camps, etc.), illustrating how a limited event theory can morph into a superconspiracy framework.
The Obama conspiracy spectrum includes: birthers; Obama as Muslim; Obama as Antichrist; the claim that his birth certificate was forged; and allegations that his presidency is controlled by an elite network.
The movement shows how conspiracy theories can diffuse through mainstream media channels (e.g., National Review), then recirculate in partisan contexts; eventually leading to political actions and legal actions (e.g., court challenges to ballot access).
The spread of Obama-related conspiracies demonstrates the permeability of the conspiracy boundary; a core belief (hidden power) crosses boundaries to become a broad worldview that informs political discourse.
The 9/11 Anthrax Conspiracy and Related Narratives
Anthrax letters that followed 9/11 fed conspiracist theories about the origins and manipulation of biological threats.
While some claims cited legitimate concerns, others posited elaborate, speculative conspiracy networks (e.g., Battelle, CIA involvement) with limited evidence.
The anthrax discourse highlights how fear can fuse with conspiracy thinking to widen the scope of a single event into a broader world-view.
Violent Conspiracism and Lone-Wolf Actors
The period after 9/11 saw a number of violent acts by individuals influenced by conspiracy theories (e.g., Hutaree Militia; Georgia Militia; American Front; Richard Poplawski; A. Joseph Stack III).
Common patterns among these cases include:
The belief that government is controlled by a New World Order cabal.
A perceived need to resist this ‘hidden’ power through violence or armed resistance.
The use of online forums and conspiracist literature to recruit and radicalize.
The Hutaree case illustrates how conspiracy beliefs can intersect with violent actions, though the court’s ruling in 2012 did not convict on seditious conspiracy due to evidentiary concerns; the broader point remains that conspiratorial beliefs can sometimes motivate violence under certain conditions.
Sovereign citizens and other anti-government ideologies produce similar patterns of anti-state violence or attempts at evading legal authority, often tied to bí-polar views of authority and sovereignty.
Millennialism and the 2012 Phenomenon
The 2012 Mayan calendar phenomenon catalyzed improvisational millennialism and conspiracy thinking:
The Mayan long-count cycle comprises 1,872,000 days, or about 5,126 years; 13 baktuns make up the long count.
The end date for the long count has historically been debated due to calendar correlations; there are about 27 correlations for aligning Mayan and Gregorian calendars.
The 2012 meme was propagated by a wide network of writers, media outlets, and popular culture; many claimed transformative or apocalyptic outcomes, while others contemplated a shift toward a new age of consciousness.
Mayan scholars generally argue there was no Mayan apocalypse; rather, December 21, 2012 marked a calendrical reset rather than end-of-history; archeological evidence later pushed potential future correlations out thousands of years.
Improvisational millennialists drew on a wide reservoir:
Argüelles’s Mayan Factor and the noosphere concept integrated with channeling, Mayan prophecy, and new-age ideas.
David Icke’s modern reconfigurations extended into non-Christian end-time speculation; his work linked Mayan cycles to reptilian conspiracies and interdimensional beings.
The 2012-improvised millennialism synthesized Western and non-Western motifs, New Age ideas, occultism, and radical politics.
The question of boundary permeability: the 2012 phenomenon illustrates how stigmatized knowledge (Mayan calendar, sacred geometry, esoteric teachings) merges with mainstream media to form a broader cultural narrative, creating a new arena for conspiratorial discourse.
The Conclusion: The Dynamics of Conspiracy Culture
Barkun argues that conspiracism has become a broad, adaptive, and evolving culture with the following features:
Improvisational millennialism acts as a flexible “bricolage” engine, drawing from a wide array of traditions to create novel end-time systems.
The Internet and modern communication technologies have transformed the spread and diffusion of conspiratorial ideas by removing gatekeepers and enabling targeted audiences to converge into a global subculture.
The line between “fringe” and “mainstream” has blurred as conspiracy motifs appear in popular culture (films like The X-Files and Conspiracy Theory) and in mainstream media discussions (e.g., birther debates).
Bridging mechanisms (crossover audiences, alternative media, and the unsegmented stigmatized knowledge domain) connect diverse audiences into a larger conspiratorial ecosystem; this ecosystem can be self-supporting even when no single central movement exists.
The increasing permeability of knowledge boundaries raises questions about epistemology and authority: if large sections of the public accept conspiratorial narratives, this challenges traditional sources of knowledge and can reshape political culture.
The “paranoid political style” remains a central thread, but the modern iteration is broader, less anchored to any single ideology, and more infused with pop-culture motifs and internet-based communities.
The fate of conspiracism depends on: (a) the perceived credibility of mainstream institutions, (b) the capacity of conspiracy theories to adapt to new technologies and media, (c) the willingness of audiences to engage with nonfalsifiable beliefs in a public sphere, and (d) the ability of counter-narratives to debunk or destigmatize false claims without erasing legitimate concerns about power and accountability.
Key Concepts in LaTeX (for quick reference)
Days and long counts in Maya calendar:
Long count days per baktun: 144{,}000
Total long count days: 1{,}872{,}000
Duration of a long count in years: 5{,}126
Number of baktuns in the long count: 13
Four types of secrecy (Table 1 concept): Type I, II, III, IV (definitions above).
Notational emphasis on hierarchical conspiracy structures: superconspiracies, with nested plots; the “world supra-government” diagrams often cited in conspiracist literature.
Notation of dates and events: 1963–2012 timeline anchors many conspiracy narratives (JFK, 9/11, Obama era, 2012 phenomenon).