Mussolini's Italy
promises of some territory gains were unfulfilled (part of Dalmatia, Adalia, Aegean islands, protectorate over Albania)
they were awarded to other states, mainly Yugoslavia, Albania became an independent state
Italians felt cheated in view of their valiant efforts during the war and loss of 700K
failure to get Fiume (given to Yugoslavia) which was not even areas which was promised them
the government had borrowed heavily, especially from the USA, and these debts now had to be repaid
the lira declined in value (from 5 to the dollar in 1914 to 28 in 1921)
the cost of living increased accordingly by at least five times
there was massive unemployment as heavy industry cut back its wartime production levels
2.5 million ex-servicemen had difficulty finding jobs
votes for all men and proportional representation introduced for the 1919 elections, caused a large number of parties in parliament
after the election of May 1921, for example, there were at least 9 parties represented, including liberals, nationalists, socialists, communists, the Catholic popular party and fascists.
this made it difficult for any one party to gain an overall majority, and coalition governments were inevitable
no consistent policy was possible as 5 different cabinets with shaky majorities came and went
there was growing impatience with a system that seemed designed to prevent decisive government
many of the 5 million men that served in its army were politicized, resenting the liberal government for their mismanagement of the war
many also resented the PSI's antiwar stance
the workforce was mobilized to fight a "total" war, which meant that the number of industrial workers grew
in turn, this led to an increased membership of trade unions and the PSI, and both were
increasingly militant by the end of the war
would arouse and mobilize the great mass of ordinary people
would control as many aspects of people's lives as possible, with strong discipline
the 'corporate state' - a way of promoting efficiency by setting up a separate organization of workers and employers for each branch of the economy. Each 'corporation' had a government official attached to it. In practice it was a good way of controlling the workforce.
building up the greatness and prestige of the state, with the implication that one's own nation is superior to all others.
cult of state
cult of force
an emphasis on the rebirth of the nation after a period of decline
no place for democratic debate, which would made decisive government impossible and held up progress
only fascism could provide the necessary dynamic action to guarantee Italy a great future
the cult of the great charismatic leader who would guide and inspire thenation to great things - il Duce ('the leader')
great nation must not be dependent on any other nations for vital commodities like raw materials and food supplies
reducing import
thought to be essential for a 'warrior-nation'
uniforms,marches, songs and displays:
to demonstrate that fascists were a completely new and dynamic alternative to the boring old-fashioned traditional parties
to mobilize mass support behind the heroic leader
keeping close control over the press, radio, theatre and cinema
Strict press censorship: Anti - fascist newspapers were banned and their editors replaced by Fascists.
Establishing of Ministry of Culture (Propaganda ministry)
Cult of Mussolini: the hero of nation ("Mussolini is always right") and man of action
Constant reminder of ancient military glory
School and Youth organisations
n domestic affairs they were prepared to use extreme violence against opponents
Mussolini himself also gave the impression that they would pursue an aggressive
foreign policy
he once remarked: 'Peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it.'
paramilitary groups - drużyny strzeleckie, brygady do ochrony kościołów, black shirts, brown shirts
for much of his time in power Mussolini showed little interest in “problems with race” (no signs of antisemityzm)
He had even encouraged Zionism (supporting Jews), because he thought it would embarass British
Many leading members of fascist party were Jews
In September 1937 he said Jews were no problem (70K in Italy)
In summer of 1939 he announced the indroduction of anti-Jewish laws, since he was pushed into an alliance with Hitler
In July 1938 Charter of Race was published
it claimed that Arabs, Africans and Jews were all inferior races
He began by urging people not to emplot Jews and fire those in jobs
press were told to report that Jews had managed to get themselves into important and influential positions and must be ousted before they sent Italy into decline
This policy was unpopular in general public
Pope was protested strongly and press was told to post the justification and ignore him
When IIWW got under way, Mussolini and Giovanni Prezioso (appointed to supervise racial policy) agreed that all Jews must be expelled from Europe
They ordered thousands of Italian Jews to be deported to Germany (they knew what Hitler was doing with them)
Again this policy was extremely unpopular and
some officials either sabotaged orders or simply refused to carry them out
He had also claimed that certain races were supierior to others - Italian belong to the Aryan race which was superior to Spaniards, Greeks, Africans (Italian Abyssinia and Libya)
he orried about ‘Levantines’ - slaves brought during the Roman Empire
Mussolini came out as a defender of private enterprsie and property
Fascists offered not only ideological opposition but were also prepared to confront Socialists and Communists physically
they saw him asa guarantee of law and order
as an protector of the property (especially after the Communist Party in January 1921)
Pope Pius XI saw him as a good anti-communist weapon
he saw the Fascists as a means of improving the position of the Church and
cementing church-state relations.
when Mussolini announced that he had dropped the republican part of his programme
It was a temporary aberration (a departure from normal development) in Italian
history, the work solely of Mussolini
historian A. Cassels calls it 'a gigantic confidence trick perpetrated on the Italian nation by Benito Mussolini - an artificial creation of Mussolini'.
Fascism grew naturally from Italian history
the environment and the circumstances shaped the rise and success of fascism, not the reverse
the roots of fascism lay in traditional Italian society and that the movement grew to fruition in the circumstances after the First World War
argued that fascism was primarily a movement of 'an emerging middle class', which was keen to challenge the traditional, liberal, ruling class for power
he claimed the movement achieved a great deal - especially the modernizing of Italy's economy, which was very backward in 1918
he does not accept this claim about the economy and argues that de Felice has not paid enough attention to 'the negative and brutal side of Fascism'
education in schools and universities was closely supervised
teachers had to wear uniforms and take an oath of loyalty to the regime
children were encouraged to criticize any teachers who lacked enthusiasm for the party
new textbooks were written to glorify the fascist system
children and young people were encouraged to join government youth organizations
Gioventu ltaliana del Littorio (GIL) - for both boys and girls aged 6-21 and organized sports and military parades
‘Sons of the Wolf’ - special organization for young boys aged 6-8 known, which also tried to indoctrinate them with the brilliance of the Duce and the glories of war
from 1937 membership of one of these organizations was compulsory
Introduced changes provided no space for critical thinking; indoctrination with the brilliance of the Duce and glories of war aimed to total obedience to authority. ‘Believe, Obey, Fight!
the 'after-work' organization
provided the Italian people with things to do in their leisure time.
cheap holidays, tours and cruises
dopolavoro controlled theatres, dramatic societies, libraries, orchestras, brassbands and sporting organizations
mobile cinemas were provided which wereuseful for putting out propaganda.
very poor families could get welfare support from it
all this was partly to appease the workers for the loss of their trade unions and the right to strike
it was genuinely popular.
propaganda campaign
aim of gaining self-sufficiency in wheat production and freeing Italy from the "slavery of foreign bread"
encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production
raised tariffs (import duties) on imported wheat as part of the drive for self-sufficiency
this had mixed results:
by 1935, wheat imports had been cut by 75 per cent
Italy was close to achieving self-sufficiency in wheat production
This policy was popular with the wealthy cereal-growing farmers of the north
it was achieved only at the expense of dairy and arablefarming, whose output fell ( the climate was not good for growing wheat)
agriculture remained inefficient and farm labourers the poorest class in the country
it had caused an unpopular shortage of consumer goods and had greatly increased Italy's national debt
campaign to increase birth rate
target was to double birth rate and raise the popualtion to 60 mln by 1950 (40 mln then)
to be achieved by:
taxing unmarried men heavily
giving tax relief and promotion work for men with large families
paying genrous family allowances
there were severe penalties for abortions
12 children as an ideal number
it was a complete faliure
young married couples didn’t find it attractive and the birth rate actually fell
commonly called the Blackshirts or squadristi (singular: squadrista)
originally the paramilitary wing of the National Fascist Party
after 1923 an all-volunteer militia of the Kingdom of Italy under Fascist rule (similar to the SA)
Its members were distinguished by their black uniforms
their loyalty to Benito Mussolini, the Duce (leader) of Fascism, to whom they swore an oath
The founders of the paramilitary groups were nationalist intellectuals, former army officers and young landowners opposing peasants' and country labourers' unions
their methods became harsher as Mussolini's power grew, and they used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents
In 1943, following the fall of the Fascist regime, the MVSN was integrated into the Royal Italian Army and disbanded
is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups
One of the key elements of the Facist system
promoted cooperation between workers and employers in order to end disruption between classes
Facist worker unions and corporations made of employers were expected to work together to settle disputes over pay
strikes were not allowed
each corporation had a government official amongst them, and a minister was in charge of the entire system (for a period of time this role was taken by Mussolini)
this system was meant to even out the economic situation, and in compensation for their freedom Mussolini promised the workers benefits, such as free Sundays and social security
the socialist leader in the Italian parliament
In May 1924 (after election) he made a speech in parliament complaining about the fraud and violence of fascists, and demanding that the election be declared invalid
Mussolini was furious, and there can be little doubt that he was responsible for having Matteotti killed
He was murdered (was stabbed to death) 11 days later
Mussolini’s son-in-law
In 1936 was appointed Minister to Foreign Affairs, and was it till 1943
earlier Minister of Press and Propaganda
Ciano had initially supported closer links with Germany
However, Ciano then became disillusioned with Hitler and argued against the Pact of Steel, signed in May 1939
Ciano advised Mussolini to create a buffer zone in the Balkans against Germany
he supported the invasion of Albania
Ciano lost favour with Mussolini for his anti-German stance when Hitler swept victoriously across Europe
Ciano ultimately relented and supported Italy joining the war with Germany in June 1940
when voting on Mussolini's ousting and subsequent arrest, he was for it
he the fled to Germany and was arrested and killed by Mussolini’s powers
pope in year 1922-1939
he had been sympathetic towards Mussolini in 1922
he backed Mussolini as he saw the Fascists as a means of improving the position of the Church and cementing church-state relations
he disapproved of the increasing totalitarianism of fascist government (the fascist youth organizations, for example, clashed with the Catholic scouts)
he also saw Mussolini as a good anti-communist weapon
he signed the Lateran Treaty of 1929
was an organized mass demonstration, which resulted in Benito Mussolini ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy (becoming prime minister)
Mussolini demanded the resignation of the government, so the new Facist party could take over the control of the country
Armed Black Shirts had surrounded Rome and threatened the government to take over the city using force, if they failed to meet Mussolini’s orders
about 50 000 blackshirts converged on the capital, while others occupied important towns in the north
the prime minister, Luigi Facta, was prepared to resist, but King Victor Emmanuel III refused to declare a state of emergency and instead, invited Mussolini to form a new government
changed the rules of general election
party that won most votes in an election, automatically would be given 2/3 of seats in parliament to make a strong government possible
in the next election (April 1924) the fascists and their supporters came out with 404 seats while the opposition parties could manage only 107
agreement between the Kingdom of Italy unde and the Holy See
Vatican was recognized as a soverign state.
Papacy recognized the Kingdom of Italy and promised not to interfere with its matters
Pope got the money as compensation for all his losses
Catholic faith became the official state religion of Italy
Catholic instructions became mandatory for all schools in Italy
Mussolini left the Church free to continue its spiritual mission without interference from the government
It was signed on in Rome
Signed by Italy, Germany, Great Britain and France (French parliament never ratified it)
It indicated that smaller nations should have less say in "Great Power" relations, unlike in the League of Nations, in which each nation had equal power (officially of course🙃)
It basically said that those four countries would rule/had power in the Europe
Agreed to strongly support the League's covenant, the Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg-Briand Pact
allowed for further " Great Power" cooperation
in reality this pact had little meaning and was dismissed by the other powers, but in Italy it was prised as Mussolini’succes
By 1935 Hitler’s rearmament (violation of Treaty of Versailles and threating moves over Austria) was alarming for the rest of Europe, so Italy started to be perceived as guarantee of status quo in Europe
so Italy, Britain and France (prime ministers and foreign ministers), met on a conference in Stresa in April 1935
The "Final Declaration of the Stresa Conference", signed on 14 April 1935 , aimed to reaffirmthe Locarno Treaties and to confirm the independence of Austria
three powers also agreed to resist further attempts to breach the Treaty of Versailles
together, they protested against Hitler's violation of the Treaty of Versailles
This "Stresa Front" agreed to work to prevent any future changes to the European settlement.
Italy invades Abyssinia full-scale (03.10.)
Just three days after the invasion (06.10) the city of Adowa was claimed by Italy
Italy continued its war and, on 6 April 1936, the Abyssinian army was defeated at Lake Ashangi
Italian forces finally took the capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936
Emperor Haile Selassie fled to Britain
On 9 May, Abyssinia was formerly annexed by Italy
It became part of Italian East Africa with Eritrea and Somaliland
Italian nationalist's ambitions to build an empire and to become a great imperial power like Britain and France
Consolidate Mussolini's position as Il Duce
Rally support for Fascist Ideal
Get revenge for the battle of Adowa (1896)
Mussolini would be able to empower his own military forces by drawing on colonial troops
The celebration (approval) of war was part of Fascist ideology
economic reasons - divert attention from the failings of the corporate state and the impact of the Great Depression
A new living space and market for Italians
to gain territory for emigration and to provide an export market for Italian goods
Mussolini also hoped to find oil
this action was condemned by the League of Nations
limited sanctions put by the League of Nations were lifted (steel and oil vital to war left) → high economic price for Italy → shifting trade to Germany
Italy moved away from good relations with France and Britain and closer to Germany.
led to a surge of nationalist feeling and this in turn encouraged Mussolini to further acts of aggression
Hoare – Laval Pact - The French and British came up with a plan to end the conflict and the tension it caused. Hoare – Laval Pact sought to pacify Mussolini by giving him most of Abyssinia. Laval and Hoare resigned because of public opinion demanding support for the League’s policy.
Italy had won the war
Mussolini’s Italian East African empire was successfully created
Initiation of a ,,Mediterranean scare”, which caused tension between Britain and Italy
Economical benefits of the war got outgrow by the costs of maintaining the army and sanctions imposed by the League
The budget deficit had risen from 2.5 to 16 billion lire during the war
Reputation for great brutality
Exposure of the weakness of the League, which had been ineffective in its response to Italian aggression
taking military action was in line with Fascist ideals regarding the central role of war and society.
hoped to gain naval bases in the Baleraric Islands from General Franco (token for gratitude)
Mussolini had aspirations to re-establish the Mediterranean Roman Empire
ideology → fight with against liberal democracy and socialism
stop communismspread in Spain and prevent communists from attaining a strategically
important position at the mouth of the Mediterranean
wanted to weaken France, since France had links with the left Popular Front Government that Franco was attempting to overthrow → that would led to strategic position in Mediterranean
have other facist state in Europe as an ally
Mussolini saw in the Spanish War an opportunity to fashion the "new Italy " and "the new Italian ". "There is only one way to create a warlike people ",
High economic cost - the lira was devalued, the total cost amounted to around 14 billion lire and led to increase of trade with Germany
One third of Italy’s arms stocks were consumed by war - military weaknesses had been exposed to the world. Italian forces were defeated by the International Brigades fighting for the Republic at the Battle of Guadalajara in March 1937
Increased tension between Italy and France and Britain due to the Italian submarine attacks on supply ships
Spain did not become an Italian satellite state
Italy drew closer to Germany
Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany
with the two powers claiming that the world would henceforth rotate on the Rome-Berlin axis
by Italy’s foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano
informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on October 25, 1936
it was formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939
The term Axis Powers came to include Japan as well
27 September 1940 in Berlin
Japan, Italy, Germany
Ribbentrop, Ciano and Kurusu
defensive military alliance that was eventually joined by other countries
The Tripartite Pact was, together with the Anti-Comintern Pact and the Pact of Steel, one of a number of agreements between Germany, Japan, Italy, and other countries of the Axis Powers governing their relationship
On 7 April Italy invaded Albania with a force of 1 00,000 men and 600 aircraft. The Albanian army that
faced them had only 15,000 badly equipped troops which had been trained by the Italians. King Zog had hoped to fight a war of resistance in the mountains, but Italian agents sabotaged the Albanians' limited equipment. By the afternoon of the very first day of fighting, all ports were in Italian hands. The King and his family fled to Greece.
On 8 April, Italian forces entered Tirana and seized control of all government buildings.
Then, on 12 April, the Albanian parliament deposed King Zog in absentia and voted to unite with Italy in "personal union".
Albania withdrew from the League of Nations on 15 April 1939.
The Italians then set up a Fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci. TheAlbanian foreign office was merged with the Italian foreign ministry and the Albanian army was put under Italian command. Mussolini declared the official creation of the Italian Empire and King Victor Emmanuel,
already Emperor of Ethiopia, was crowned King of Albania.
majority of Italians were against it
they disaproved when Mussolini began to sack Jews from important jobs
they felt that Italy was becoming a German satellite
Mussolini failed to modernize the economy to be able to support a prolonged war
Italy was incapable of waging a major war
the army was equiped with obsolete rifles and artillery, no heavy tanks and only 1K planes
The declaration of war on the USA, horrified many of Mussolini’s right wing supporters, who didn’t want economic controls which wartime brought
He also failed to convert general public to his aims of war and conquest
taxes were increased to pay for the war
food rationing
masive infaltion
30% fall in real wages
after 11.1942 British were bombing raids on major cities
By March 1943, unrest caused strikes in Milan in Turin (first since 1922)
after a few early successes, they started to lose culiminating in the surrender of all Italian troops in North Africa
he was suffering from a stomach ulcer and nervous strain
all he could think of was to sack some of ministers who critized him
When Allied capture the Sicily (07.1943) many of fascist leaders realized that continug the war had no sense
but Mussolini refused to make peace, because it would ment deserting Hitler
The Fascist Grand Council turned against Mussolini and the king dismmissed him
Nobody tried to save him and fascism disappeared
authoritarian government
propaganda
corporationism, couldn’t strike
controlled production
militarism
nationalism
one person who is in power
promises of some territory gains were unfulfilled (part of Dalmatia, Adalia, Aegean islands, protectorate over Albania)
they were awarded to other states, mainly Yugoslavia, Albania became an independent state
Italians felt cheated in view of their valiant efforts during the war and loss of 700K
failure to get Fiume (given to Yugoslavia) which was not even areas which was promised them
the government had borrowed heavily, especially from the USA, and these debts now had to be repaid
the lira declined in value (from 5 to the dollar in 1914 to 28 in 1921)
the cost of living increased accordingly by at least five times
there was massive unemployment as heavy industry cut back its wartime production levels
2.5 million ex-servicemen had difficulty finding jobs
votes for all men and proportional representation introduced for the 1919 elections, caused a large number of parties in parliament
after the election of May 1921, for example, there were at least 9 parties represented, including liberals, nationalists, socialists, communists, the Catholic popular party and fascists.
this made it difficult for any one party to gain an overall majority, and coalition governments were inevitable
no consistent policy was possible as 5 different cabinets with shaky majorities came and went
there was growing impatience with a system that seemed designed to prevent decisive government
many of the 5 million men that served in its army were politicized, resenting the liberal government for their mismanagement of the war
many also resented the PSI's antiwar stance
the workforce was mobilized to fight a "total" war, which meant that the number of industrial workers grew
in turn, this led to an increased membership of trade unions and the PSI, and both were
increasingly militant by the end of the war
would arouse and mobilize the great mass of ordinary people
would control as many aspects of people's lives as possible, with strong discipline
the 'corporate state' - a way of promoting efficiency by setting up a separate organization of workers and employers for each branch of the economy. Each 'corporation' had a government official attached to it. In practice it was a good way of controlling the workforce.
building up the greatness and prestige of the state, with the implication that one's own nation is superior to all others.
cult of state
cult of force
an emphasis on the rebirth of the nation after a period of decline
no place for democratic debate, which would made decisive government impossible and held up progress
only fascism could provide the necessary dynamic action to guarantee Italy a great future
the cult of the great charismatic leader who would guide and inspire thenation to great things - il Duce ('the leader')
great nation must not be dependent on any other nations for vital commodities like raw materials and food supplies
reducing import
thought to be essential for a 'warrior-nation'
uniforms,marches, songs and displays:
to demonstrate that fascists were a completely new and dynamic alternative to the boring old-fashioned traditional parties
to mobilize mass support behind the heroic leader
keeping close control over the press, radio, theatre and cinema
Strict press censorship: Anti - fascist newspapers were banned and their editors replaced by Fascists.
Establishing of Ministry of Culture (Propaganda ministry)
Cult of Mussolini: the hero of nation ("Mussolini is always right") and man of action
Constant reminder of ancient military glory
School and Youth organisations
n domestic affairs they were prepared to use extreme violence against opponents
Mussolini himself also gave the impression that they would pursue an aggressive
foreign policy
he once remarked: 'Peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it.'
paramilitary groups - drużyny strzeleckie, brygady do ochrony kościołów, black shirts, brown shirts
for much of his time in power Mussolini showed little interest in “problems with race” (no signs of antisemityzm)
He had even encouraged Zionism (supporting Jews), because he thought it would embarass British
Many leading members of fascist party were Jews
In September 1937 he said Jews were no problem (70K in Italy)
In summer of 1939 he announced the indroduction of anti-Jewish laws, since he was pushed into an alliance with Hitler
In July 1938 Charter of Race was published
it claimed that Arabs, Africans and Jews were all inferior races
He began by urging people not to emplot Jews and fire those in jobs
press were told to report that Jews had managed to get themselves into important and influential positions and must be ousted before they sent Italy into decline
This policy was unpopular in general public
Pope was protested strongly and press was told to post the justification and ignore him
When IIWW got under way, Mussolini and Giovanni Prezioso (appointed to supervise racial policy) agreed that all Jews must be expelled from Europe
They ordered thousands of Italian Jews to be deported to Germany (they knew what Hitler was doing with them)
Again this policy was extremely unpopular and
some officials either sabotaged orders or simply refused to carry them out
He had also claimed that certain races were supierior to others - Italian belong to the Aryan race which was superior to Spaniards, Greeks, Africans (Italian Abyssinia and Libya)
he orried about ‘Levantines’ - slaves brought during the Roman Empire
Mussolini came out as a defender of private enterprsie and property
Fascists offered not only ideological opposition but were also prepared to confront Socialists and Communists physically
they saw him asa guarantee of law and order
as an protector of the property (especially after the Communist Party in January 1921)
Pope Pius XI saw him as a good anti-communist weapon
he saw the Fascists as a means of improving the position of the Church and
cementing church-state relations.
when Mussolini announced that he had dropped the republican part of his programme
It was a temporary aberration (a departure from normal development) in Italian
history, the work solely of Mussolini
historian A. Cassels calls it 'a gigantic confidence trick perpetrated on the Italian nation by Benito Mussolini - an artificial creation of Mussolini'.
Fascism grew naturally from Italian history
the environment and the circumstances shaped the rise and success of fascism, not the reverse
the roots of fascism lay in traditional Italian society and that the movement grew to fruition in the circumstances after the First World War
argued that fascism was primarily a movement of 'an emerging middle class', which was keen to challenge the traditional, liberal, ruling class for power
he claimed the movement achieved a great deal - especially the modernizing of Italy's economy, which was very backward in 1918
he does not accept this claim about the economy and argues that de Felice has not paid enough attention to 'the negative and brutal side of Fascism'
education in schools and universities was closely supervised
teachers had to wear uniforms and take an oath of loyalty to the regime
children were encouraged to criticize any teachers who lacked enthusiasm for the party
new textbooks were written to glorify the fascist system
children and young people were encouraged to join government youth organizations
Gioventu ltaliana del Littorio (GIL) - for both boys and girls aged 6-21 and organized sports and military parades
‘Sons of the Wolf’ - special organization for young boys aged 6-8 known, which also tried to indoctrinate them with the brilliance of the Duce and the glories of war
from 1937 membership of one of these organizations was compulsory
Introduced changes provided no space for critical thinking; indoctrination with the brilliance of the Duce and glories of war aimed to total obedience to authority. ‘Believe, Obey, Fight!
the 'after-work' organization
provided the Italian people with things to do in their leisure time.
cheap holidays, tours and cruises
dopolavoro controlled theatres, dramatic societies, libraries, orchestras, brassbands and sporting organizations
mobile cinemas were provided which wereuseful for putting out propaganda.
very poor families could get welfare support from it
all this was partly to appease the workers for the loss of their trade unions and the right to strike
it was genuinely popular.
propaganda campaign
aim of gaining self-sufficiency in wheat production and freeing Italy from the "slavery of foreign bread"
encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production
raised tariffs (import duties) on imported wheat as part of the drive for self-sufficiency
this had mixed results:
by 1935, wheat imports had been cut by 75 per cent
Italy was close to achieving self-sufficiency in wheat production
This policy was popular with the wealthy cereal-growing farmers of the north
it was achieved only at the expense of dairy and arablefarming, whose output fell ( the climate was not good for growing wheat)
agriculture remained inefficient and farm labourers the poorest class in the country
it had caused an unpopular shortage of consumer goods and had greatly increased Italy's national debt
campaign to increase birth rate
target was to double birth rate and raise the popualtion to 60 mln by 1950 (40 mln then)
to be achieved by:
taxing unmarried men heavily
giving tax relief and promotion work for men with large families
paying genrous family allowances
there were severe penalties for abortions
12 children as an ideal number
it was a complete faliure
young married couples didn’t find it attractive and the birth rate actually fell
commonly called the Blackshirts or squadristi (singular: squadrista)
originally the paramilitary wing of the National Fascist Party
after 1923 an all-volunteer militia of the Kingdom of Italy under Fascist rule (similar to the SA)
Its members were distinguished by their black uniforms
their loyalty to Benito Mussolini, the Duce (leader) of Fascism, to whom they swore an oath
The founders of the paramilitary groups were nationalist intellectuals, former army officers and young landowners opposing peasants' and country labourers' unions
their methods became harsher as Mussolini's power grew, and they used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents
In 1943, following the fall of the Fascist regime, the MVSN was integrated into the Royal Italian Army and disbanded
is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups
One of the key elements of the Facist system
promoted cooperation between workers and employers in order to end disruption between classes
Facist worker unions and corporations made of employers were expected to work together to settle disputes over pay
strikes were not allowed
each corporation had a government official amongst them, and a minister was in charge of the entire system (for a period of time this role was taken by Mussolini)
this system was meant to even out the economic situation, and in compensation for their freedom Mussolini promised the workers benefits, such as free Sundays and social security
the socialist leader in the Italian parliament
In May 1924 (after election) he made a speech in parliament complaining about the fraud and violence of fascists, and demanding that the election be declared invalid
Mussolini was furious, and there can be little doubt that he was responsible for having Matteotti killed
He was murdered (was stabbed to death) 11 days later
Mussolini’s son-in-law
In 1936 was appointed Minister to Foreign Affairs, and was it till 1943
earlier Minister of Press and Propaganda
Ciano had initially supported closer links with Germany
However, Ciano then became disillusioned with Hitler and argued against the Pact of Steel, signed in May 1939
Ciano advised Mussolini to create a buffer zone in the Balkans against Germany
he supported the invasion of Albania
Ciano lost favour with Mussolini for his anti-German stance when Hitler swept victoriously across Europe
Ciano ultimately relented and supported Italy joining the war with Germany in June 1940
when voting on Mussolini's ousting and subsequent arrest, he was for it
he the fled to Germany and was arrested and killed by Mussolini’s powers
pope in year 1922-1939
he had been sympathetic towards Mussolini in 1922
he backed Mussolini as he saw the Fascists as a means of improving the position of the Church and cementing church-state relations
he disapproved of the increasing totalitarianism of fascist government (the fascist youth organizations, for example, clashed with the Catholic scouts)
he also saw Mussolini as a good anti-communist weapon
he signed the Lateran Treaty of 1929
was an organized mass demonstration, which resulted in Benito Mussolini ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy (becoming prime minister)
Mussolini demanded the resignation of the government, so the new Facist party could take over the control of the country
Armed Black Shirts had surrounded Rome and threatened the government to take over the city using force, if they failed to meet Mussolini’s orders
about 50 000 blackshirts converged on the capital, while others occupied important towns in the north
the prime minister, Luigi Facta, was prepared to resist, but King Victor Emmanuel III refused to declare a state of emergency and instead, invited Mussolini to form a new government
changed the rules of general election
party that won most votes in an election, automatically would be given 2/3 of seats in parliament to make a strong government possible
in the next election (April 1924) the fascists and their supporters came out with 404 seats while the opposition parties could manage only 107
agreement between the Kingdom of Italy unde and the Holy See
Vatican was recognized as a soverign state.
Papacy recognized the Kingdom of Italy and promised not to interfere with its matters
Pope got the money as compensation for all his losses
Catholic faith became the official state religion of Italy
Catholic instructions became mandatory for all schools in Italy
Mussolini left the Church free to continue its spiritual mission without interference from the government
It was signed on in Rome
Signed by Italy, Germany, Great Britain and France (French parliament never ratified it)
It indicated that smaller nations should have less say in "Great Power" relations, unlike in the League of Nations, in which each nation had equal power (officially of course🙃)
It basically said that those four countries would rule/had power in the Europe
Agreed to strongly support the League's covenant, the Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg-Briand Pact
allowed for further " Great Power" cooperation
in reality this pact had little meaning and was dismissed by the other powers, but in Italy it was prised as Mussolini’succes
By 1935 Hitler’s rearmament (violation of Treaty of Versailles and threating moves over Austria) was alarming for the rest of Europe, so Italy started to be perceived as guarantee of status quo in Europe
so Italy, Britain and France (prime ministers and foreign ministers), met on a conference in Stresa in April 1935
The "Final Declaration of the Stresa Conference", signed on 14 April 1935 , aimed to reaffirmthe Locarno Treaties and to confirm the independence of Austria
three powers also agreed to resist further attempts to breach the Treaty of Versailles
together, they protested against Hitler's violation of the Treaty of Versailles
This "Stresa Front" agreed to work to prevent any future changes to the European settlement.
Italy invades Abyssinia full-scale (03.10.)
Just three days after the invasion (06.10) the city of Adowa was claimed by Italy
Italy continued its war and, on 6 April 1936, the Abyssinian army was defeated at Lake Ashangi
Italian forces finally took the capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936
Emperor Haile Selassie fled to Britain
On 9 May, Abyssinia was formerly annexed by Italy
It became part of Italian East Africa with Eritrea and Somaliland
Italian nationalist's ambitions to build an empire and to become a great imperial power like Britain and France
Consolidate Mussolini's position as Il Duce
Rally support for Fascist Ideal
Get revenge for the battle of Adowa (1896)
Mussolini would be able to empower his own military forces by drawing on colonial troops
The celebration (approval) of war was part of Fascist ideology
economic reasons - divert attention from the failings of the corporate state and the impact of the Great Depression
A new living space and market for Italians
to gain territory for emigration and to provide an export market for Italian goods
Mussolini also hoped to find oil
this action was condemned by the League of Nations
limited sanctions put by the League of Nations were lifted (steel and oil vital to war left) → high economic price for Italy → shifting trade to Germany
Italy moved away from good relations with France and Britain and closer to Germany.
led to a surge of nationalist feeling and this in turn encouraged Mussolini to further acts of aggression
Hoare – Laval Pact - The French and British came up with a plan to end the conflict and the tension it caused. Hoare – Laval Pact sought to pacify Mussolini by giving him most of Abyssinia. Laval and Hoare resigned because of public opinion demanding support for the League’s policy.
Italy had won the war
Mussolini’s Italian East African empire was successfully created
Initiation of a ,,Mediterranean scare”, which caused tension between Britain and Italy
Economical benefits of the war got outgrow by the costs of maintaining the army and sanctions imposed by the League
The budget deficit had risen from 2.5 to 16 billion lire during the war
Reputation for great brutality
Exposure of the weakness of the League, which had been ineffective in its response to Italian aggression
taking military action was in line with Fascist ideals regarding the central role of war and society.
hoped to gain naval bases in the Baleraric Islands from General Franco (token for gratitude)
Mussolini had aspirations to re-establish the Mediterranean Roman Empire
ideology → fight with against liberal democracy and socialism
stop communismspread in Spain and prevent communists from attaining a strategically
important position at the mouth of the Mediterranean
wanted to weaken France, since France had links with the left Popular Front Government that Franco was attempting to overthrow → that would led to strategic position in Mediterranean
have other facist state in Europe as an ally
Mussolini saw in the Spanish War an opportunity to fashion the "new Italy " and "the new Italian ". "There is only one way to create a warlike people ",
High economic cost - the lira was devalued, the total cost amounted to around 14 billion lire and led to increase of trade with Germany
One third of Italy’s arms stocks were consumed by war - military weaknesses had been exposed to the world. Italian forces were defeated by the International Brigades fighting for the Republic at the Battle of Guadalajara in March 1937
Increased tension between Italy and France and Britain due to the Italian submarine attacks on supply ships
Spain did not become an Italian satellite state
Italy drew closer to Germany
Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany
with the two powers claiming that the world would henceforth rotate on the Rome-Berlin axis
by Italy’s foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano
informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on October 25, 1936
it was formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939
The term Axis Powers came to include Japan as well
27 September 1940 in Berlin
Japan, Italy, Germany
Ribbentrop, Ciano and Kurusu
defensive military alliance that was eventually joined by other countries
The Tripartite Pact was, together with the Anti-Comintern Pact and the Pact of Steel, one of a number of agreements between Germany, Japan, Italy, and other countries of the Axis Powers governing their relationship
On 7 April Italy invaded Albania with a force of 1 00,000 men and 600 aircraft. The Albanian army that
faced them had only 15,000 badly equipped troops which had been trained by the Italians. King Zog had hoped to fight a war of resistance in the mountains, but Italian agents sabotaged the Albanians' limited equipment. By the afternoon of the very first day of fighting, all ports were in Italian hands. The King and his family fled to Greece.
On 8 April, Italian forces entered Tirana and seized control of all government buildings.
Then, on 12 April, the Albanian parliament deposed King Zog in absentia and voted to unite with Italy in "personal union".
Albania withdrew from the League of Nations on 15 April 1939.
The Italians then set up a Fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci. TheAlbanian foreign office was merged with the Italian foreign ministry and the Albanian army was put under Italian command. Mussolini declared the official creation of the Italian Empire and King Victor Emmanuel,
already Emperor of Ethiopia, was crowned King of Albania.
majority of Italians were against it
they disaproved when Mussolini began to sack Jews from important jobs
they felt that Italy was becoming a German satellite
Mussolini failed to modernize the economy to be able to support a prolonged war
Italy was incapable of waging a major war
the army was equiped with obsolete rifles and artillery, no heavy tanks and only 1K planes
The declaration of war on the USA, horrified many of Mussolini’s right wing supporters, who didn’t want economic controls which wartime brought
He also failed to convert general public to his aims of war and conquest
taxes were increased to pay for the war
food rationing
masive infaltion
30% fall in real wages
after 11.1942 British were bombing raids on major cities
By March 1943, unrest caused strikes in Milan in Turin (first since 1922)
after a few early successes, they started to lose culiminating in the surrender of all Italian troops in North Africa
he was suffering from a stomach ulcer and nervous strain
all he could think of was to sack some of ministers who critized him
When Allied capture the Sicily (07.1943) many of fascist leaders realized that continug the war had no sense
but Mussolini refused to make peace, because it would ment deserting Hitler
The Fascist Grand Council turned against Mussolini and the king dismmissed him
Nobody tried to save him and fascism disappeared
authoritarian government
propaganda
corporationism, couldn’t strike
controlled production
militarism
nationalism
one person who is in power
