Japan's Path to Military Dictatorship and WWII Involvement

Japan's International Status in 1919

Japan emerged from WWI as a strong, wealthy nation with a modern industrial sector and a powerful navy.
It had increased influence over China and a constitutional democracy.
The government adopted a pro-Western foreign policy to assure major powers it posed no threat in China and the Far East, abandoning pre-war expansionism.
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Japan was recognized as one of the five great powers.
Saionji Kinmochi, Japan's chief delegate, sat with Wilson, Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Orlando.
Japan was awarded control over Germany's former possessions in China's Shantung Province and a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations.

Tensions at the Paris Peace Conference

Despite the positive outcomes, tensions emerged that impacted future relations between Japan and the Western powers.
Japan sought to ensure Western notions of racial superiority did not undermine its position and influence as a great power.
Japan proposed a 'racial equality clause' in the Covenant of the League of Nations:
- The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality.
The proposal was supported by France, Italy, Brazil, China, Greece, and Czechoslovakia but opposed by most others.
Britain worried about the implications for its authority over its largely non-white empire.
Countries like the USA, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia had policies banning Japanese immigration.
Billy Hughes, the Prime Minister of Australia, noted Australians feared employment prospects with large-scale Asian immigration and 'rejected the very idea of equality'.
President Wilson realized it would be difficult to persuade Americans to accept the League of Nations and racial equality with large-scale Asian immigration.
The Japanese proposal was rejected due to Wilson's insistence on unanimous agreement.
The Japanese delegation was incensed, having played a significant role in helping the Allies win WWI and expecting greater respect.

Public Opinion and Western Domination

Japanese public opinion was divided over involvement in the League of Nations, with many seeing it as Western-dominated.
Rejection of the race equality clause and continued bans on Asian immigration into Western countries increased opposition.
Japanese newspapers and radio broadcasts popularized the impression that Japan was not treated as a true equal by Western allies, especially the USA.
Japanese anger grew when the Paris Peace Conference reversed its original decision regarding control over Germany's former possessions in Shantung Province, awarding it to China.
Japan maintained power and influence in the province through deals with regional Chinese warlords, but the decision was viewed as Western powers exerting dominance over Japan.

Pro-Western Foreign Policy and Naval Limitations

The Japanese government continued its pro-Western foreign policy despite increasing public opposition.
At the Washington Naval Conference (1921-22), Japan agreed to limit its navy to three-fifths the size of the US and British fleets.
Historians disagree on the reasons for abandoning expansionism.
Some claim Japan was forced due to the combined power of Britain and the USA, unable to win a naval arms race against the USA.
Others argue Japan genuinely wanted cooperation to guarantee its security and continue economic expansion in China, as realized by politicians like Kijuro Shidehara.
The government's policies were increasingly at odds with public opinion in Japan.

Political and Economic Factors in the Failure of Democracy

Japan adopted constitutional democracy in 1889; by 1925, all adult males could vote.
The emperor retained significant power (e.g., decisions about war and peace and command of armed forces).
Japan was moving toward a political system similar to those in Western democracies.
New political parties emerged, focused more on domestic reform than militaristic foreign policy.
Social, economic, and political problems emerged in the 1920s and early 1930s, which democratically elected governments seemed incapable of overcoming.
As disputes raged between and within political parties, military leaders grew increasingly powerful.
Secret military groups, such as the Sakurakai (Cherry Blossom Society), aimed to end party politics and restore the emperor in a military dictatorship.
Many people in Japan increasingly supported such groups due to concerns that politicians were dividing the country rather than uniting it.
By the early 1930s, Japan's experiment with democracy was ending due to political and economic factors.

Political Factors in the Decline of Japanese Democracy

The concept of democracy was relatively new to the Japanese people, who were used to the emperor holding total power.
The large number of political parties made decision-making slow and ineffective.
Governments were formed through unstable alliances between parties with different views.
Little progress was made in addressing key issues (e.g., post-WWI economic problems and education reform).
The Japanese people's respect for parliamentary democracy declined as many politicians were corrupt and open to bribery.
The main political parties were heavily funded by large industrial companies (e.g., Mitsui and Mitsubishi), and their policies often reflected the needs of those companies rather than the best interests of Japan and its people.
The government's humiliation at the Paris Peace Conference and the Washington Naval Conference contributed to the decline.
The USA passed the Japanese Exclusion Act in 1924, which effectively ended further Japanese immigration to the USA, leading to mass protests.
Public opinion agreed with army and navy leaders that the government should exploit China's weakness for Japanese expansion.

Ultra-Nationalist Sentiments and Secret Societies

As ultra-nationalist sentiments developed, secret societies' influence increased.
In a series of incidents (e.g., March and October 1931 and February 1932), secret society supporters attempted to undermine the government by assassinating leading politicians.
The May 15th Incident in 1932: Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated by a group of naval officers.
At their trial, the naval officers criticized the government's failings and were given lenient sentences, further eroding the government's credibility.
The military's increasing influence was reflected in the requirement for government ministers responsible for the army and navy to be serving military officers.
Governments found it increasingly difficult to control the activities of the Japanese military.

Economic Factors in the Decline of Japanese Democracy

The economic boom during WWI ended by 1920 as European industry revived.
The war had artificially boosted demand for Japanese exports, leading to rapid industrial output expansion.
Japanese manufactured products were not internationally competitive in terms of quality and price.
Unable to maintain its export markets, Japan significantly over-produced, leading to falling prices.
For example, between January and December 1920, the price of Japanese cotton yarn fell by 60%, and that of silk by 70%.
Many companies went out of business, while others reduced their workforce.
Unemployment rose in Japan's industrial cities, and farmers were hit by falling prices.
Attempts by workers and farmers to form political organizations were suppressed by the government.
The government provided extensive loans to banks and industries to prevent bankruptcies and unemployment, resulting in a short-term recovery during the 1920s.
Underlying problems re-emerged during the worldwide economic crisis following the Wall Street Crash in 1929.
Japan entered a steep economic depression in 1930, leading to impoverished rural areas and periods of famine.
Japan's economy was heavily reliant on textile exports, which faced dramatically reduced international demand during the Great Depression.
The value of Japan's textile exports fell by over 50% between 1929 and 1931.
Unemployment rose, and poverty spread, leading most Japanese people to blame the government for their misfortunes.

Manchuria and the Collapse of Japanese Democracy

Events in Manchuria led to the final collapse of Japanese democracy.
Japan had extensive trade and investment interests in Manchuria, protected by the Kwantung Army, due to its increasing influence over China following the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) and the Twenty-One Demands during WWI.
In September 1931, the Kwantung Army mobilized and took control of Manchuria, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo without the Japanese government's permission.
Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi's criticism of this action led to his assassination.
Emperor Hirohito deplored the attack on Manchuria but refused to order the Kwantung Army to withdraw, fearing damage to his prestige if the order was ignored.

Kwantung Army and Manchurian Invasion

Historians disagree about the reasons why the Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria in defiance of the government.
Since 1928, Chiang's KMT Chinese government had claimed that treaties between China and Japan were invalid.
Japanese settlers were expelled without compensation in some parts of China.
The Manchurian warlord Chang Tso-lin (Zhang Xuolin) was threatening Japanese interests in Manchuria and was assassinated by a Kwantung Army officer in 1928, increasing anti-Japanese sentiment.
The Chinese were trying to reduce Japanese influence over trade and business in Manchuria, a blow to the Japanese economy during the worldwide depression.
Manchuria was rich in iron ore and coal deposits, valuable to resource-poor Japan.
Many army officers were concerned about Japan's vulnerability in future wars and believed it was vital for Japan to achieve economic self-sufficiency by acquiring new territory.
The events of 1931 seemed an ideal opportunity, with China distracted by floods and civil war and Europe and the USA dealing with their own economic problems.
Japanese army officers were dismayed by government cuts to the army and navy; the Manchurian conquest would demonstrate the army's importance.
Public opinion in Japan largely supported the Manchurian campaign, viewing it as an economic solution to the Depression with new trade and investment markets.

Effects of the Manchurian Invasion

The invasion made it clear that the government had lost control of its armed forces.
The emperor's advisers concluded that a democratically elected government could no longer provide stability.
Emperor Hirohito appointed a National Unity government under Admiral Makoto Saitō, resulting in the armed forces assuming control and establishing a military dictatorship.

Defiance and Isolation

In defiance of the League of Nation's instruction, Japan poured military resources into Manchuria.
The League concluded its enquiry, the Lytton Commission, and decided that Manchuria should be returned to China, but Japan had already established full control over the region, which it renamed Manchukuo.
The Japanese delegation stormed out of the League Council and never returned due to anger at the League's decision.
Japan was now isolated, lacking allies and acting in defiance of international opinion.
The League of Nations took no action to force Japan to relinquish control over Manchukuo.
Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in March 1933 and rejected arms control.
The agreements made at the Washington Conference were no longer valid.
In November 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany, and Italy joined in 1937.

Outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War

From 1931 to 1937, relations between Japan and China remained strained.
Under the Boxer Protocol of 1901, Japan and other countries had been allowed to station troops near Peking to guard railway lines and other communications systems.
The number of Japanese troops stationed in China far exceeded that allowed under the terms of the Boxer Protocol.
Efforts to extend economic interests within China resulted in skirmishes, but these were minor affairs settled quickly.
In July 1937, an incident at the Marco Polo Bridge resulted in the outbreak of full-scale war between Japan and China, which was to last until 1945.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

Precise details are unconfirmed, but it appears a Japanese training exercise was misinterpreted by Chinese troops as genuine military action.
The Chinese fired on the Japanese and immediately issued an apology, but the Japanese government used the incident to declare war on China.

Japanese Invasion and Stalemate

Japanese troops poured into China, initially with great success, then the war reached a stalemate.
Major cities, such as Shanghai, were quickly taken, and China's Nationalist government relocated from Nanking to a more secure base in western China.
Renewed unity between Chiang's KMT and Mao's CCP meant that the Japanese were confronted by much sterner opposition than anticipated.
Japanese troops moved further into the Chinese interior, their vital supply and communications lines became increasingly stretched and a target for sabotage conducted as part of the CCP's guerrilla tactics.
In the west of China, Japanese troops faced major counter-offensives from KMT soldiers equipped with modern Russian-supplied weapons.
Japan controlled many of China's major cities but could not control the countryside.

Western Concerns and Japan's Dilemma

There was renewed concern amongst the Western powers about Japanese aggression, and some considered imposing economic sanctions.
By 1939, Britain was heavily involved in fighting its own war against Nazi Germany, and the USA was still pursuing an isolationist policy.
There was little possibility of China receiving any direct help from the West.
Japan's military leaders were divided over what action to take next.
They argued that Japan should continue its aggressive policy and seize Dutch, British, and French possessions in the Far East.
Success against Indo-China, Thailand, Burma, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies would provide Japan with new sources of tin, oil, and rubber.
Others, including Prime Minister Prince Konoye, argued for a more cautious approach.
They were concerned about the possibility of attack by the USSR and felt that it was more important to safeguard against this than to risk further military engagements, especially with so many Japanese troops engaged in China.

Shift in Foreign Policy and Military Dictatorship

This dilemma ended in June 1941 when Germany invaded the USSR, eliminating the threat to Japan.
There now seemed to be nothing to prevent Japan taking more territory.
A new prime minister, General Hideki Tojo, was appointed.
Japan's descent into military dictatorship was now complete.
This had major implications for Japan's foreign policy.
The military-dominated Japanese government was now committed to the extension of Japanese territory by military force.
Its main objectives were to complete the conquest of China and to expand Southwards by seizing the wealth and resources available in the South East Asian possessions of Britain, France, and the Netherlands.

Reasons for Japanese Involvement in World War II

With the major European nations fully occupied in fighting World War II, and the threat of attack by the USSR now removed, Tojo's government embarked on a program of territorial expansion.
This was to bring it into conflict with the USA, which was concerned about the effects of Japanese expansionism on its own interests in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean.
This was a conflict that was to lead to Japan's own catastrophic involvement in World War II.

US Concerns and Sanctions

The USA had been increasingly concerned about Japanese expansion since the invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
However, it had done little more than express criticism of Japanese actions.
In 1940, when Japan invaded Indo-China, the USA had imposed some economic sanctions, but these were restricted to military equipment such as airplanes.
The USA's attitude began to change when Japan extended its control over French Indo-China in 1941.
Tojo claimed that this action posed no threat to the USA and that Japan was keen to maintain peace with the USA.
However, the American intelligence services had broken the Japanese diplomatic code, and President Roosevelt was fully aware of Japan's plans for further territorial acquisitions in the Pacific region and the threat which this posed to American interests.

US Response and Misjudgments

In response, Roosevelt increased the USA's military presence in the Philippines, and in July 1941, ended American oil exports to Japan.
Roosevelt believed that economic sanctions would be enough to force the Japanese to back down.
This belief was based on two assumptions:
- First, that Japan was militarily weak, as demonstrated by its failure to force a quick defeat on China.
- Second, that the presence of British and American forces in the Pacific region would be sufficient to deter Japanese aggression.
Both assumptions were wrong.

Japan's Predicament and Deceptive Intentions

Denied vital American oil imports, Japan faced a stark choice either reach a diplomatic settlement with the USA or continue seizing raw materials from the South-East Asia region, including the oil of the Dutch East Indies.
Japan pursued both options.
Just as Hitler had disguised his aggressive intentions behind constant claims that his only desire was for peace, so Tojo pursued negotiations with American diplomats while, at the same time, preparing his armed forces for war.

End of Negotiations and Pearl Harbor

It was not until 26 November 1941, when Roosevelt demanded that Japan cease its military build-up in the Pacific region, that Tojo finally broke off diplomatic relations with the USA.
By then, a fleet of Japanese ships was already three weeks into its journey towards the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands.
On board six aircraft carriers, protected by two battleships, two cruisers, and over 50 other vessels, were 453 Japanese fighter planes armed with bombs and torpedoes.
Their aim was to destroy the American Pacific fleet in line with a plan that had been devised by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.
Surprisingly, these Japanese ships went undetected either by American patrol vessels or radar.
Despite the obvious threat posed by Japan's warlike preparations, the American base seemed totally unprepared for a possible attack.
At 8 a.m. on Sunday 7 December 1941, the first wave of 183 Japanese aircraft attacked. By 1.30 p.m., when the attack finished, the USA had suffered the loss of 2402 men and almost 190 aircraft, together with major damage to eight ships.
The attack had come as such a surprise that, during the first wave of bombing by Japanese fighter planes, only four US aircraft were able to get airborne to offer any defense.

Immediate Impact of Pearl Harbor

The nature of the attack and its implications were described in a BBC radio broadcast in Britain:
- Japan has launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and has declared war on Britain and the United States.
- News of the daring raid has shocked members of the American Congress at a time when Japanese officials in Washington were still negotiating on lifting US sanctions imposed after continuing Japanese aggression against China.
- President Roosevelt is working on a message to Congress tomorrow, in which he is expected to ask for a declaration of war with Japan.
- The US government expects Germany and Italy to declare war on the USA within hours.

Reasons for the Attack and US Unpreparedness

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor poses two key questions for historians:
- First, why did Japan's military leaders order such an attack when it would almost certainly lead to war against the powerful USA?
- Second, when the USA was aware of Japanese intentions to continue an expansionist policy in the Pacific region and the threat that this posed to American interests, why was the naval base at Pearl Harbor totally unprepared for an attack?

Japan's Motives

Japanese military leaders were already convinced that war with the USA was inevitable.
They interpreted the increased American military presence in the Philippines as a prelude to a US attack on Japan.
The fact that both the USA and Britain had enhanced their naval deployment in the Pacific Ocean reinforced this opinion.
Rather than wait for such an attack to occur, the Japanese came to the conclusion that it was logical to mount a pre-emptive strike.
- Pre-emptive strike: an attack designed to destroy an enemy's ability to respond. It is based on the assumption that the enemy is itself planning an imminent attack.
Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 had been largely secured by the destruction of the Russian fleet in Port Arthur.
Japan's military leaders believed that, in much the same way, the attack on Pearl Harbor would seriously undermine the USA's ability to fight a naval war in the Pacific.
Destroying much of the USA's Pacific fleet would enable Japan to continue its expansionist policy without interference from the USA.
In particular, it would hinder the USA's ability to mobilize its military forces in the Pacific.
The Japanese government also believed that a devastating attack on Pearl Harbor would seriously undermine the morale of the American people and encourage the USA to seek a peaceful settlement with Japan.

US Unpreparedness

The reasons why the American base at Pearl Harbor was so unprepared for the attack have become a topic for great debate amongst historians.
Some have argued that, since American intelligence services had cracked the Japanese diplomatic code, it should have been obvious that Japan was planning such an attack.
They suggest that Roosevelt and his government were fully aware that an attack was imminent, but failed to do anything about it.

Controversial Views on Roosevelt's awareness of Pearl Harbor Attack

Roosevelt had long argued that it was in the USA's best interests to become involved in the Second World War.
When war broke out in 1939, he advocated US entry into the war in support of Britain in order to protect American interests in Europe.
Such views were extremely unpopular in the USA, where public opinion remained steadfastly isolationist.
Even members of Roosevelt's own Democratic Party had labeled him a warmonger.
This has led to the accusation that Roosevelt did nothing to prevent the attack on Pearl Harbor because it would force the American people to accept that he had been right all along, and that the USA had no choice but to enter the Second World War.

Alternative Interpretations of US unpreparedness

These controversial views are rejected by most historians, who argue that there are more logical explanations for Pearl Harbor's lack of preparation for a Japanese attack.
They point out that the US intelligence services had intercepted such a vast amount of Japanese material that it would have been impossible to identify Japan's plans for an attack on Pearl Harbor.
As an example, they claim that, due to a decoding delay, the full implications of Japan's announcement that it was breaking off diplomatic relations with the USA did not become clear in Washington until six hours before the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December.
There is considerable evidence to suggest that the US government had been anticipating a Japanese attack, and had placed American military personnel on high alert.
However, it was assumed that such an attack would be launched against the Dutch East Indies or the American bases in the Philippines. Pearl Harbor had not been identified as a possible target.

Aftermath and Consequences

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had a profound and lasting effect on US foreign policy. It completely ended the USA's commitment to isolationism.
Americans could no longer claim that events in the wider world did not affect or concern them, and the Second World War was clearly no longer an exclusively European affair.
The USA formally declared war on Japan.
Hitler greeted the news of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor with jubilation. With Japan as an ally, he believed Germany would be invincible.
Consequently, Germany declared war on the USA - a decision that guaranteed American involvement on the battlefields of Europe.
For Japan, too, the attack on Pearl Harbor had major implications.

Failure of Key Objectives and Long-Term Impact

As devastating as it was, the attack had failed in its key objectives.
A number of American ships, including three aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga) were at sea at the time, and therefore escaped undamaged.
The ships anchored in Pearl Harbor were in shallow water, making it relatively easy for some of them to be salvaged and repaired.
The number of American deaths was far lower than Japan had envisaged, because most crew members were on shore leave at the time.
Moreover, the attack had failed to destroy large supplies of oil that were to prove vital in supplying the USA's subsequent war effort.
Though seriously damaged, the American Pacific fleet was far from destroyed.
The descent into military dictatorship had led to fundamental changes in Japan's foreign policy and its relations with the international community.
It had acted in open defiance of various treaties to which it had been a signatory.
It had blatantly ignored, and subsequently withdrawn from, the League of Nations, of which it had been a founder member.
It had allied itself with the aggressive fascist regimes of Germany and Italy, adopting similar methods of territorial expansion though military power.
Japan's attempt to increase its power and influence in the Far East was to bring destruction upon itself.
The Japanese had become involved in a war against an increasingly united China from which it derived no benefit.
Japan's close links with Hitler's Germany had simply brought it into conflict with Western democratic nations such as Britain.
In December 1941, Japan had made an enemy of the most powerful nation on earth.