Cell Biology, Chemistry and Gas Exchange

Cells and Their Functions

• Cells are the fundamental building blocks of life.
• All living organisms are composed of cells.
• Organisms can be:
  • Unicellular: Consisting of a single cell (e.g., bacteria, yeast).
  • Multicellular: Consisting of two or more cells.
• Cells contain organelles, each with specialized functions.
• Two primary categories of cells:
  • Prokaryotes:
    • Lack a true nucleus.
    • Lack membrane-bound organelles.
  • Eukaryotes:
    • Possess a true nucleus.
    • Contain membrane-bound organelles.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells and Compartmentalization

• Prokaryotes’ reactions are less efficient due to the absence of membrane-bound organelles.
• Eukaryotes benefit from compartmentalization:
  • Organelles perform multiple reactions simultaneously under varying conditions.
  • Reactions do not interfere with each other.

Specialization and Division of Labor

• All prokaryotes are unicellular.
• Eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular.
• Multicellular organisms feature specialized cells with shapes related to their function.
  • Sperm cells: Aerodynamic shape to facilitate swimming.
  • Red blood cells: Biconcave shape to increase surface area.
• Division of labor:
  • Tissues: Groups of cells performing a specific job.
  • Organs: Groups of tissues working together.
  • Systems: Groups of organs collaborating.
  • Organism: A group of systems forming a complete living being.

The Endosymbiotic Theory

• Certain eukaryotic organelles were once independent prokaryotes.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts:
  • Thought to have originated as free-living prokaryotes.
  • Engulfed by eukaryotes.
  • Developed a mutualistic relationship:
    • Eukaryotes gained food (from chloroplasts) and energy (from mitochondria).
    • Prokaryotes received shelter and nutrients.
• Evidence supporting this theory:
  • Double membrane: Original prokaryotic membrane + food vacuole membrane from the eukaryote.
  • 70S ribosomes: Similar to prokaryotes (eukaryotes have 80S).
  • Independent division: Occurs separately from the nucleus during cell division.
  • Circular DNA: Similar to prokaryotes, not found in eukaryotes.
  • Size and shape: Comparable to prokaryotes.

Cell Membranes: Structure and Function

• Main functions:
  • Regulating substance movement in and out of the cell.
  • Cell recognition and communication.
• Main component: Phospholipids
  • Hydrophilic head: Attracted to water.
  • Hydrophobic tail: Repelled by water.

Phospholipid Bilayer and Membrane Components

• Phospholipids form a bilayer structure due to their dual affinity for water:
  • Heads face outwards towards water.
  • Tails face inwards away from water.
• Other components:
  • Cholesterol: Provides membrane flexibility.
  • Peripheral proteins: Located on one side, maintain membrane shape.
  • Integral proteins: Span the membrane, facilitate transport.
    • Channel proteins
    • Carrier proteins
  • Recognition proteins: Enable cell recognition and communication, can be glycoproteins or lipoproteins.

Movement of Substances Across Cell Membranes

• Cells require intake of oxygen and nutrients and removal of waste products like carbon dioxide.
• Movement occurs via:
  • Diffusion
  • Osmosis
  • Active Transport

Diffusion

• Movement from high to low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
• Passive transport, does not require energy.
• Facilitated diffusion: Uses channel or carrier proteins for large molecules.
  • Does not use energy.
• Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
  • Temperature: Higher temperature increases rate.
  • Distance: Shorter distance increases rate.
  • Surface area: Larger surface area increases rate.

Osmosis

• Movement of water from low to high solute concentration across a semi-permeable membrane until equilibrium.
• Passive transport, does not require energy.

Active Transport

• Movement from low to high concentration, against the concentration gradient.
• Requires energy.

Chemicals of Life: Atoms and Ions

• Atoms are the basic units of matter.
• Composed of:
  • Protons: Positive charge.
  • Neutrons: Neutral charge.
  • Electrons: Negative charge.
• Protons and neutrons form the nucleus; electrons orbit around it.
• In an atom, number of protons = number of electrons.
• Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
  • Losing an electron results in a positive charge.
  • Gaining an electron results in a negative charge.

Bonding of Atoms

• Atoms form bonds to become molecules.
• Types of bonds:
  • Ionic bonding: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
    • Example: Sodium chloride (Na+Cl-), where sodium loses an electron to chlorine.
  • Covalent bonding: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
    • Electronegativity determines partial charges.
    • Example: Water (H2O), where oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen.

Water: Structure and Properties

• Essential for life.
• V-structure: Oxygen is more electronegative, pushing hydrogens apart.
• Polar molecule: Oxygen has a slight negative charge $({\delta}^−)$; hydrogens have slight positive charges $({\delta}^+)$.
• Hydrogen bonds: Attraction between water molecules due to partial charges.

Properties of Water due to Hydrogen Bonding

• Adhesion: Water sticks to different substances.
• Cohesion: Water sticks to itself.
• Universal solvent: Many substances dissolve in water (e.g., glucose, salts).
• Transport medium: Substances dissolve in water and are transported (e.g., blood).
• Reactant: Cellular reactions occur in water (e.g., cytoplasm, digestion, photosynthesis).
• Lubricant: Adhesion and cohesion aid lubrication (e.g., joints, eyes, saliva).
• Density: Less dense when frozen, allowing aquatic life to survive under ice.
• Thermal properties: High specific heat capacity and latent heat of evaporation for temperature regulation and cooling (sweat).

The pH Scale

• Measures acidity, neutrality, or alkalinity.
• 7 is neutral (pure water).
• Lower numbers indicate acidity; higher numbers indicate alkalinity.

Building Organic Molecules

• Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids consist of small units.
• Monomers: Single units.
• Dimers: Two units.
• Polymers: Many units.

Carbohydrates

• Provide energy easily.
• Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
• Types:
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

• Features:
  • Single ring structure.
  • Sweet taste.
  • Water-soluble.
  • Reducing sugars.
  • Crystalline structure.
• Examples: Glucose, fructose, deoxyribose.
• Functions: Glucose provides energy; deoxyribose forms DNA.
• Sources: Sugars, jam, fruit, sweets.
• General formula for glucose: $C<em>6H</em>{12}O_6$

Disaccharides

• Features:
  • Two rings.
  • Sweet taste.
  • Water-soluble.
  • Reducing sugars.
  • Crystalline structure.
• Examples: Maltose, sucrose, lactose.
• Functions: Intermediates for reactions (e.g., glucose -> maltose -> starch).
• Sources: Fruit, milk.
• Formation: Condensation reaction (removal of water) creates a glycosidic bond.
• Breakdown: Hydrolysis reaction (addition of water) breaks the glycosidic bond.
• Enzymes control these reactions.

Polysaccharides

• Features:
  • Many monosaccharide rings.
  • Not sweet.
  • Insoluble in water.
  • Powdery structure.
• Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose.
• Functions:
  • Starch: Storage in plants.
  • Glycogen: Storage in animals.
  • Cellulose: Plant cell walls.
• Sources: Bread, pasta, rice.
• Solubility decreases as chain length increases.

Lipids

• Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
• State at room temperature: Fats are solid; oils are liquid.
• Structure: Triglycerides (glycerol + three fatty acids).
• Formation: Condensation reaction joins molecules.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Lipids

• Saturated: Single bonds only, easier to stack and store.
• Unsaturated: Double bonds, kinks and bends make storage difficult.
• Phospholipids: One fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group to create hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.

Functions of Lipids

• Energy storage in fat deposits.
• Insulation.
• Cell membrane components.
• Waxy cuticle in plants to reduce water loss.
• Sources: Olive oil, butter, red meat.

Proteins

• Elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus.
• Units:
  • Monomers: Monopeptides (amino acids).
  • Dimers: Dipeptides.
  • Polymers: Polypeptides.

Amino Acids

• 21 different amino acids used to build proteins.
• Variable group (R group or side chain) differentiates amino acids.
• Essential amino acids: 9 amino acids that must be obtained from food, as the body cannot produce them.

Peptide Bonds and Polypeptide Chains

• Amino acids form peptide bonds through condensation reactions.
• Two amino acids joining creates a dipeptide.
• Multiple amino acids create a polypeptide chain.

Protein Structures

• Primary structure: Amino acid chain.
• Secondary structure: Polypeptide bends and folds (e.g., keratin, collagen).
• Tertiary structure: More folding, globular shape (e.g., enzymes).
• Quaternary structure: Polypeptide joins non-protein molecules or other proteins (e.g., glycoproteins, hemoglobin).
• Specific structure related to its function.

Protein Denaturation and Classification

• Denaturation: Loss of shape and function due to high temperature or extreme pH.
• Two classes:
  • Fibrous: Long shapes, provide strength and support (structural proteins).
  • Globular: Spherical shape, varied functions (functional proteins).

Fibrous vs. Globular Proteins

• Fibrous Proteins (Structural Proteins):
  • Definition: Elongated shapes with repeating units, forming fibrous structures.
  • Examples: Collagen and keratin.
  • Role: Mechanical support, strength, and stability to tissues and organs (e.g., collagen in tendons, ligaments, and skin).
• Globular Proteins (Functional Proteins):
  • Definition: Compact, spherical shape.
  • Examples: Enzymes, antibodies, and hormones.
  • Role: Biological processes and specific functions (e.g., enzymes as catalysts, antibodies in the immune system, and hormones as chemical messengers).

Protein Functions and Sources

• Functions:
  • Build-up and repair of muscles and other cells.
  • Build enzymes
• Not usually for energy, UNLESS starving.
• Sources: Chicken, legumes, eggs.

Nucleotides

• Made up of:
  • Simple sugar (ribose or deoxyribose).
  • Phosphate group.
  • Nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, uracil).
• Used for DNA and RNA, and:
  • ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and ADP (adenosine diphosphate).
  • NAD
  • FAD

Enzymes: Biological Catalysts

• Protein in nature.
• Biological catalysts that speed up reactions.
• Not used up during reaction, can be reused.
• Substrate specific.
• Temperature and pH sensitive.

Lock-and-Key Mechanism

• Substrate enters the active site of the enzyme.
• Reaction occurs and product forms, creating an enzyme-substrate complex.
• Product detaches from the enzyme.
• Enzyme shape unchanged, can be reused.
• Enzymes can both breakdown (catalyse) and build up (anabolise) substances.

Induced Fit Model

• Similar to lock-and-key, but suggests enzyme shape is not fixed.
• Enzyme can accept substrates with similar shapes.
• More applicable for inhibitors.

Inhibitors

• Substances that fit in the active site or allosteric site, or change enzyme function.
• Types:
  • Non-specific inhibitors: Affect all enzymes by denaturing them (e.g., high temperature, extreme pH).
  • Competitive inhibitors: Similar shape to the substrate, enter the active site but usually no reaction occurs. Removed on its own, enzyme works normally.
  • Non-competitive inhibitors: Attach to the allosteric site, change the active site shape, preventing substrate binding. Usually reversible.
  • Irreversible inhibitors: Affect enzyme permanently.
    • Those that bind permanently to the enzyme’s active site
    • Those that attach to the enzyme, change its shape permanently, detach themselves and move on to other enzymes.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Reaction Rate

• Temperature:
  • Higher temperature means more kinetic energy.
  • Substrate enters active site by chance; faster movement increases chances.
  • Low temperature = slow rate; increased temperature = higher rate (doubles with every 10°C increase).
  • Optimum temperature = fastest rate.
  • Beyond optimum temperature = denaturation and rate slows down/stops.
• pH:
  • Enzymes work best at a specific pH.
  • Deviation from optimum pH causes denaturation and slower reaction rate.
• Substrate concentration:
  • Higher concentration = faster rate, but only until saturation point (all active sites occupied).
  • Rate levels off and remains constant once saturated.
• Enzyme concentration:
  • Higher enzyme count equates to a quicker reaction rate

Enzyme Uses

• Biological washing powders: Fast stain removal, enzymes are reusable, work at low temperatures.
• Making juices: Cellulase breaks down plant cell walls, amylase breaks down starch for sweetness.

Breathing and Gas Exchange

• Unicellular organisms: gases exchange by diffusion due to large SA:V ratio.
• Larger organisms: Dedicated gas exchange system needed.
• Gas exchange occurs across a respiratory surface.
• Respiration: Reaction where glucose is broken down to release energy.
• Respiratory system: Lungs/gills, where gases are exchanged.
• Efficient respiratory surface needs:
  • Large surface area.
  • Thin permeable surface.
  • Moist exchange surface -- gases must dissolve in water before exchanging.
• Alveoli adaptations:
  • Large network of capillaries that bring CO2 to be removed and take away oxygen, keeping a high concentration gradient.

Movement of Air into the Lungs

• Air enters through the nose and mouth.
• Moves down the trachea.
• Divides into two bronchi (one for each lung).
• Each bronchus divides into smaller bronchioles.
• Bronchioles end in alveoli.
• Specialized cells for infection prevention:
  • Goblet cells: They produce mucus that traps dust, pathogens, etc
  • Epithelial cells have tiny hairs called cilia, which move the mucus around (to the nose to be sneezed out, or towards the stomach).

The Process of Breathing – Ventilation

• Breathing in / inhaling / inspiration:
  • Intercostal muscles contract, moving the ribcage upward and outwards.
  • Diaphragm contacts pushing organs in abdomen down
  • Increase volumne and decreases pressure
  • Air moves into the lungs.
• Breathing out / exhaling / expiration:
  • Intercostal muscles relax and the ribcage moves down.
  • Diaphragm relaxes and is pushed back up by the organs in the abdomen
  • Decrease volume and increase pressure
  • Air moves out of the lungs.
• The pleural cavity is a thin space betweent the lungs and the ribs, filled with a special fluid callled the pleura, that acts as a lubricant and prevents friction and pain every time the lungs move against the ribs.
• Ventilation is the process by which air is inhaled and exhaled.
• Gas exchange is process of gases moving in and out across a respiratory surface
• Respiration is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy.

Diseases of the Lungs

• Air in through the nose and mouth contains dust, debris, pollen, pathogens, etc.
• Cars have catalytic converters factories have special plates in their chimneys -> limit pollutants from the burning of fossil fules from being spread.
• As air enters through the nose and mouth:
  • Nose hairs stop larger particles that go furtjer in.
  • Mucus traps other particles since it is sticky. The mucous is then moved upwards to be sneezed out or diverted to the stomach.
• Smaller particles, including viruses, may not be captured by these mechanisms and thus they man end up in the lungs, causing irritation and disease.

Effects of Smoking

• Cigarettes contain a lot of harmful substances and are carrocinogenic (cause cancer).
• Carbon Monoxide:
  • Binds to haemoglobin (red pigment found in red blood cells, used to transport oxygen).
  • This prevents oxygen from being carried, making the red blood cell useless, therefore causing person to be fatuged, tired, out of breath etc.
• Nicotine:
  • One of the addictive substances in cigarettes.
  • Increases heart rate and blood pressure and decreases the flexibility of blood pressure and decreases the flexibility of the blood vessels, therefore causing cardiovascular problems such as stroke, heart attack haemorrhage etc.
• Tar:
  • Sticky substance that prevents lungs from inflating properly
  • Also stops the beating of cilia in epithelial cells.
  • This means that the muscus reduced by the goblet cells is not moved around, and pools in the lungs The lungs are warm and moist, which means bacteria can grow very quickly in the accumulated mucus.

Emphysema

• Condition where the alveoli become damaged, usually due to repeated infections, however it can also happen due to disease.
  • The walls of the alveoli become weaker as white blood cells attack the pathogens, and eventually the walls break down.
  • This reduces the surface area for gas exchang, leading to shortness of breath.

Cystic Fibrosis

• Inherited disorder where the patient produces thick mucus that is very difficult to remove.
  • This causes repeated infections and difficulty with breathing as the lungs don’t expand properly.

Nutrition

• Nutrition refers to the intake of food. There are two types of nutrition:
  • Heterotrophic - organisms that need to find their own food.
  • Autotrophic - organisms that are able to make their own food.

Plant Nutrition

• Most plants are able to make their own food by a process called photosynthesis.
• The chemical and word Equations are:
  • Word Equation: Carbon dioxide + water $\xrightarrow{light}$ Glucose + oxygen
  • Chemical Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O $\xrightarrow{light}$ C6H12O6 + 6O2

Leaf Structure and Function

• Cuticle: the Cuticule is a layer of wax to slow down water loss
• Upper epidermis – secrete thin waxy layer, and contains the guard cells.
• Palisade mesophyll: Thightly packed and full of chlorophyll to perform photosynthesis
• Spongy Mesophyll: is irregulary shaped s they have a large surface area for gas exchanging gases.
• Lower epidermis – that secrete thin waxy layer, and contains the guard cells.
• Guard cells: a pore that allows the entry and exit of gasses
• Stomata: – a pore that allows the entry and exit of gases
• Airspace: – allows for a steep concentration gradient for gas exchange
• Vascular bundle – Contians the xylem and phloem, which transport water and minerals, and the products of photosynthesis respectfully.
• Leaves have several adaptians to perform more efficent photosynthesis:
  • Leaves contian a lot of chloraply, the green pigment needed for photosynthesis
  • Leaves are usually brad for more light absortion and the stams provide support
  • Waxy cuticle to prevent water loss
  • Leaves arte usually thin , for more efficient gas exchange
  • Suplied with a large number of veins that provide water and take away the products of photosynethis . We find two types of scasular tissue: xylem which transport water; pholem swuch trasport product of photosynthesis.
• Leaves also contian accessory pigments, which allow for a wider rande of light to be absorbed, and therefore making photosynthesis more efficient.

Photosynthesis

• Process by which organisms (especially plants) make their own food using
  • Carbon Dioxide
  • Water
  • Light
• Two parts
  • Light-Dependent Reaction
  • Light-Independent Reaction
• Light dependent: Light becomes excirted ( electron) and release energy
• Light-indepent: Light $\rightarrow$ATP$\rightarrow$ADP + p - ENERGY
• Light $\rightarrow$ NADPH $\rightarrowNADP + H + ENERGY
• Light: H2O + H1 + CO2 $\rightarrow C6 H12 06 + 02
• Breaking bonds realses, forming bonds regerates energy.
• Remember: 6CO2 + 6H20 = C6H12O6 + 602 Photosyntheiss

Light-Dependent Reaction

• Light energy hits atoms of chlorophyll, causing electrons to excite and jump to the next shell.
• When electrons move back down, they release energy used to:
  • Create ATP from ADP + P
  • Create NADPH from NADP + H
  • Split water, where oxygen is a waste product, while the hydrogen is bonded to NADP

Light-Independent Reaction

• The light products from the light-dependent reaction used to create the light reaction
• ATP is broken down into ADP & P,which releases energy
• NADPH is broken down in the NADP + H, which releases heat also release the energy, that's going to used to bond together to the H to carbon dioxide = to C6H12O6 (glucose).
• 6CO2 + 6H20 = C6H12O6 + 602 Photosynthesis
• Remember: Breaking bonds releases energy; Forming bonds requires energy.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis Rate

• Light: Higher intensity, faster rate (until chlorophyll damage).
• Temperature: Higher temperature, faster rate (until enzymes denature).
• Carbon Dioxide: Higher the amount of CO2, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
• A limiting factor is a factor that determines how fast or how slow a reaction can be. It limits the rate of reaction.

Animal Nutrition

• All animals are heterotrophs, meaning they need to find and consume their own food.
• Over nutrition - when an individual eats too much food and gains weight. This leads to diabetes, vascular problems etc.
• Malnutrition - when an individual does not have a balanced diet. This leads to lack of vitamins, minerals etc
• Undernutritution – when an individual does not eat enough food. This is common in poer countries.

What Minerals and vitamins can influence:

• Needed for Good vision, hair, binding of cells, bones and teeth, haemoglobin formation

Functions of Vitamins

• Vitamin A: good vision, healthy hair/skin.
  Deficiency: night blindness.
  Sources: carrots, fish liver oil.
• Vitamin C: general health, cell binding.
  Deficiency: bleeding gums.
  Sources: citrus fruits.
• Vitamin D: Strong bones and teeth, softening of bonesDeficiency: bending of bones(rickets). Sources: dairy products, sun.
  • Minerals are inorganic substances that are also needed in small quantities and are also responsible for proper and healthy growth.
• Calcium: Mineral; strong bones/teeth.
  Deficiency: Bones and teeth.
  Sources: dairy products.
• Phosphorus :Needed for - formation, ATP formation.
  Sources - Softened bones.
• Iron: Mineral; haemoglobin formation.
  Deficiency: anemia.
  Sources: red meat, legumes, green veg.

Digestion: process for break down of molecules to manageable ones that are usable by body

• All throughout the alimentary canal(from the mouth to the anus)-
• -Peristalses that are wave-like muscular contractions, that help he food/ waste to move along.
• -Mucus , acts like lubricant and helps the food/waste to move to move.

How it works

• Mouth: through the mouth it enters the body and break down occurs physically and with enzymes to swollow the substances in small pieces
• -phscal or mechanicat- Occurs but be teeth.
• It increases more surface area for efficent enzymes, helps to easier to swallow food with toungue help.
• -chemicaat- Occurs by enzymes, specifically salivary amylase, which breaks down starch and maltose.

Stomach

• Releases stomach to lower pH to 2, then enzymes, such as Pepsin with Digestive Juices get released.The Mucus is secreted to prevent self diegest.
• The main purpose of the stomach is to digest food, by breaking down large food molecules into smaller ones, creating a soup-like mixture called chyme. This is then slowly released into the small intestine.
• The stomach releases three important substances:
  • Stomach acid (hydrochloric acid) to lower the ph to 2
  • Enzymes, such as pepsin which breaks down protein
  • Digestive juices
• A layer of mucus is secreted by specialised cells in the stomach to prevent self-digestion.
• Certain substances are absorbed immediately by the stomach:
  • Water
  • Glucose
  • Alcohol
    <liCertain drugs

Small Intestine

• Small Intestine: 1) to finish the digestion 2) to continue obsorption. Made up of three parts: Duodenum, jejunum, Lileum
• Small intestine plays 2 roles * -To finish digestion
  • -To continue absorbtion.
• The first part of the small instestine in known as the duodenum, whihc this is concerment wuth finishing of digestion. Three substanes are released. * Pancreatic juices: Contains different enzymes to finish digestion. Some enzymes can include- pancreatic amylase, maltase, sucrase, lipase. etc.
  • odium bycarbinase: Produced by the pancreas that natrilisez, the acidity of the food that it is coming from the to the stomach
    • Bile: Produced by the Liver and stored in the Gall bladder- It emulsifies that which Means that large fat gobalas is bracken down into smaller flat globules, for lipas to work more efficently. that louers the pH to 3 Fatty acids and Glycerol to work.
• The final part of a salll intestine is called the ilenum, and this is responsible absorption of food

Small Intestine Adaptations for Efficient Absorption

1. Very long: Food has more time to be absorbed.
2. Villi and microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption.
3. Villi are one-cell thick: Shorter distance means faster absorption.
4. Large number of blood vessels and lacteals: Maintain high concentration gradient and maximize efficiency.

Function of the Large Intestine:

• The main function of the large intestine is to absorb: Water, mineral ions and vitamins that it receives from with the undistages wastefrom the ileum
• Once there final substances have been obsorbed, the faeces will pass trough the colon and reach the rectum ,where they will be temporyaly stored , then move out there anus by peristalis.
• Un digestable material is made up mostly with Plant material known as rouphage. This is extremley important since it prevent consipation.
• In cases of dirria, the indigested material doesn't spend enough thume, to the the H20 to be obsorbed, meing that woory fasses are produecd
• The pancreas:
  • produces many diffrent enzymes that are secrected in to the duodemun to compleat digestion
  • Produce soidum bycarbinate with this alkaline ph- and helps with the digestad substeances.
    • - produce two very Important hormones -insulin and glucagon helps with the regulation of blood, Blood levels.
• The liver:
  * Production of bile that is use to help help wht the fats more easier, then more smaller fat globlus
  * - the liver contras Blood sugar levels- The stores excess of glucose as glacogen trough the adtion of insulin. Conerts glocgan bacl with glucose b.

Fate of Glucose in the Liver

• Used Immediately For Energy With The Breakdown of Respiration
• -Stored as glycogen = Converted to fat
• Used in other reaction such as by as the production or Intermidiate

Respiration: process by which glucose is broken for released energy ( in the fourm of ATP)

• Respirations can be found it this format: Aerobic( breakdown is using oxygen) Anaerobic (The brack is without usiong oxygen)
• Glucose+6 Oxygen$\longrightarrow$6-CO2$\longrightarrow$6- H20 + Energy2830KJ ( Word)
  C6H-12+6-O2$\longrightarrow$$\longrightarrow$6 Carbon DIOxide + Water+Energy( CHemical)
• Respiration and Aerabic Includes * Glycosis
  • Krebs Cycle
    • Oxidative posphrolation:
• -Glucose$\longrightarrow$