AP BIO Midyear
Basics
Emergent properties: New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life,
owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increase
Characteristics of Life
➢ Organization: cell is basic unit of life
○ Catabolism: break things down
○ Anabolism: build things
➢ Metabolism
➢ Nutrition: the process by which organisms get energy and raw materials from their
environment
➢ Transport: movement of material within the organism
➢ Cellular Respiration: how cells get energy from nutrients
➢ Excretion: the removal of wastes from the body resulting from metabolic reactions
➢ Homeostasis/Regulation
○ Homeostasis: stable internal environment
○ Regulation: anything an organism does to maintain homeostasis
➢ Growth: development an organism goes through between birth and death
➢ Reproduction: process of an organism making more of its own kind
➢ Evolution: change in a population of organisms over time (many generations)
Hierarchy of life
➢ Biosphere: all life on Earth and its location
➢ Ecosystem: all life in a particular area
➢ Community: array of organisms in an ecosystem
➢ Population: all organisms of a species in an area
➢ Organism: living individual
➢ Organ + Organ system: body part that performs a specific function
➢ Tissue: group of cells that performs a task
➢ Cell: building block of life
➢ Organelle: cell components
➢ Molecule: chemical structure with 2 or more atoms
➢ Atom: smallest unit of ordinary matter
Feedback regulation
➢ Negative feedback: a loop in which the response reduces the initial stimulus
○ Blood sugar regulation (insulin lowers blood glucose when levels are high)
➢ Positive feedback: in which an end product speeds up its own production
○ Childbirth (contractions increased)
Taxonomic Rank
➢ Domain
○ Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
➢ Kingdom
➢ Phylum
➢ Class
➢ Order
➢ Family
➢ Genus
➢ Species
Keep Penis Clean or Fungus Growth Starts
Inquiry
Inquiry: a search for information and explanations of natural phenomena
Data: recorded observations
➢ Quantitative: expressed as numerical measurements and often organized into tables and
graphs
➢ Qualitative: in the form of recorded descriptions rather than numerical measurements
Inductive reasoning: Collecting and analyzing observations can lead to important conclusions
based on a type of logic
Hypothesis: A testable explanation for a set of observations based on the available data and
guided by inductive reasoning
Experiment: scientific test, carried out under controlled conditions
Deductive reasoning: logic that flows in the opposite direction, from the general to the specific
Controlled experiment: designed to compare an experimental group with a control group
Independent variable: value is manipulated or changed
Dependent variable: measured value
Necessary VS. Sufficient
➢ If it’s necessary, anything without this characteristic could not be considered alive.
➢ If it’s sufficient, that means as long as something has this characteristic, it must be alive.
Unit 1- Evolution
Evolution: change in a population of organisms over time
➢ Population: group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area
➢ Time: many generations
➢ Change: Traits/ adaptations than previous generations
Adaptation: a favorable characteristic/ trait that improves survival or reproduction success
Fitness:the ability to survive and reproduce.
➢ An organism is considered “fitter” if it has more viable offspring.
Natural selection
Natural Selection: a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive
and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits
➢ Individuals do not evolve. Rather, it is the population that evolves over time
➢ The TRAIT is selected, the POPULATION adapts
Ideas of Natural Selection
Idea #1: Sources of Variation
➢ Mutations: New Variations in DNA arise randomly (can be favorable or unfavorable,
neutral)
➢ Sexual reproduction: New combinations of existing genetic information
Idea #2: Inheritance
➢ Organisms can pass their traits to the next generation
Idea #3: Competition
➢ Resources are limited. Not all will survive
Idea #4: Selection
➢ Those that survive are better adapted
Evidence of Evolution
Homology: Similarity in characteristics resulting from a shared ancestry
➢ Homologous structures: Structures in different species that are similar because of
common ancestry
➢ Vestigial structure: structure of an organism that is a historical remnant of a structure
that served a function in the organism’s ancestors.
➢ Embryology: anatomical features shared between organisms, visible during embryonic
development, can indicate evolutionary ancestry
➢ Molecular biology: similarities and differences between the “same” gene in different
organisms can determine how closely related the organisms are
➢ Analogous structures: Having characteristics that are similar because of convergent
evolution, not homology
○ Convergent evolution: the independent evolution of similar features in different
lineages
Paleontology: the scientific study of fossils
➢ Fossil record is not a complete record of evolutionary history, but it confirms the
existence of now-extinct species and sometimes captures potential "in-between" forms
on the path to present-day species.
Biogeography: the scientific study of the geographic distributions of species
➢ Geographical distribution of species can help us reconstruct their evolutionary histories
Other Mechanisms of Evolution
Genetic Drift: process in which chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele
frequencies from one generation to the next
Ex. Natural Disaster
➢ Effects of genetic drift are most pronounced in small populations
Trade offs: For every PRO there’s a set of CONS, or drawbacks.
Speciation: An evolutionary process in which one species splits into two or more species.
➢ Allopatric: physical separation.
➢ Sympatric: no physical separation.
Prezygotic isolating mechanism: Anything that prevents mating and fertilization
➢ Temporal: occurs when two species mate at different times of the year.
➢ Ecological : occurs when two species occupy different habitats.
➢ Behavioral : occurs when two species have different courtship behaviors.
➢ Mechanical : occurs when physical differences prevent copulation/pollination.
Postzygotic isolating mechanism: prevent a hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile
adult
➢ Hybrid Inviability: hybrids are produced but fail to develop to reproductive maturity.
➢ Hybrid Infertility: hybrids fail to reproduce effectively.
➢ Hybrid Breakdown: hybrids can reproduce, but its offspring fail to do so.
Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Phylogenetic tree: a branching diagram representing the evolutionary history of a group of
organisms
Taxon: A named taxonomic unit at any given level of classification
Branch point: where lineages diverges
Sister taxa: groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor
Basal taxon: refers to a lineage that diverges early in the history of a group
Polytomy: a branch point from which more than two descendant groups emerge
Outgroup: species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have
diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying
Parsimony: smallest number of assumptions
Orthologous genes: genes that indicate descent from a common ancestor because they
derive from a speciation event – therefore they occur in different species
Paralogous genes: genes that result from gene duplication, therefore there can be
multiple copies of genes that have diverged from one another in a species
Cladistics
Clades: each of which includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants
Monophyletic: consists of an
ancestral species and all of its
descendants
Paraphyletic: consists of an
ancestral species and some,
but not all, of its descendants
Polyphyletic: includes
distantly related species but
does not include their most
recent common ancestor
Derived VS Ancestral
Shared ancestral character: a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon
Shared derived character: an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade
Molecular Clocks
Molecular clock: measures the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation
that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates.
➢ Basically, the time where a species notably diverged from a group due to a mutation and
begins at its own species.
➢ Fewer differences=shares more recent common ancestor.
➢ More sequence differences, more “evolutionary time” passed
➢ Not all genes evolve at same rate
○ More “important” genes are slower to change in a population because
selection pressure against mistakes is strong
○ Less “important” genes are faster to change in a population because selection
pressure against mistakes is weak
Example
Assume mammals (like humans) and arthropods (like moths) diverged 500 MYA in the fossil
record. There is about 25% difference between human and moth cytochrome c. According to
molecular clock theory, how long would the two moth populations have to be separate to have a
difference of 1%?
0.05% difference per million years
25% diff
500 MY
=
= 20 million years
1% diff
0.05% diff/ MY
Horizontal Gene Transfer
➢ A process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through
mechanisms such as exchange of transposable elements and plasmids, viral infection etc.
Unit 2- Ethology + Stats
Animal Behavior
Behavior: The nervous system’s response to a stimulus (external or internal) and is carried out by
the muscular or the hormonal system
➢ Helps obtain food
➢ Find a partner for sexual reproduction
➢ Maintain homeostasis
Proximate causation, or “how” explanations, focus on
➢ Environmental stimuli that trigger a behavior
➢ Genetic, physiological, anatomical mechanism underlying a behavior
Ultimate causation, or “why” explanations focus on
➢ Evolutionary significance of a behavior
Fixed Action Pattern: Sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that are unchangeable
➢ Once initiated, it is usually carried to completion
➢ Triggered by an external cue known as a sign stimulus
Taxis: More or less automatic, oriented movement toward or away from a stimulus
➢ Environmental cues can trigger movement in a particular direction
Kinesis: A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus (non-directional
change)
Migration: regular, long-distance change in location
➢ Animals can orient themselves using
○ The position of the sun and their circadian clock, an internal 24-hour clock that is
an integral part of their nervous system
○ The position of the North star
○ Earth’s magnetic field
Pheromones: chemical substances that allow animals to communicate through odor or taste
➢ Can be effective at very low concentrations
Innate behavior: developmentally fixed and under the strong genetic influence (existed at birth)
Learning: modification of behavior based on specific experiences
Cognition: the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and
judgment
Habituation: a simple form of learning that involved loss of responsiveness to stimuli that
convey little to no information
➢ Birds will stop responding to alarm calls from their species if these are not followed by an
actual attack
Spatial Learning: the establishment of a memory which reflects the environment’s structure.
➢ Wasps locate their nests by memorizing its position relative to nearby landmarks.
Imprinting: occurs when the young imprint on their parent and learn basic behaviors during their
sensitive period.
➢ Sensitive Period: time period an offspring has to bond with its parent.
Associative learning: animals associated one feature of their environment with another
➢ Classical conditioning: type of associative learning in which an arbitrary stimulus is
associated with an outcome
○ A dog that repeatedly hears a bell before being fed will salivate in anticipation at
the bell’s sound
➢ Operant conditioning: type of associative learning in which an animal learns to associate
one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment
○ A rat that is fed after pushing a lever will learn to push the level in order to receive
food
Natural Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain most behaviors
➢ Behavior can affect fitness by influencing foraging and mate choice
➢ Natural selection refines behaviors that enhance the efficiency of feeding
➢ Foraging: food-behaviors
○ Includes recognizing, searching for, capturing, and eating food
➢ Risk of predation affects foraging behavior
○ Mule deer are more likely to feed in open forested areas where they are less
likely to be killed by mountain lions
Monogamous: One male mates with one female
Polygamous: an individual of one sex mates with several individuals of the other sex
Polygynous: One male mates with females
Polyandrous: One female mates with many males
➢ Rare mating system
Actor benefits Actor is harmed
Recipient Benefit Cooperative Altruistic
Recipient is harmed Selfish Spiteful
Altruism: a behavior that reduces an animal’s individual fitness but increases the fitness of other
individuals in the population
➢ Inclusive fitness can account for the evolution of altruistic social behavior
○ Natural selection favors behavior that maximizes an individual’s survival and
reproduction (selfish)
○ On occasion, some animals behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but
increase the fitness of others
■ Under threat from a predator, an individual will make an alarm call to warn
others, even though calling increases the chances that the caller is killed
Kin selection: evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism's
relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction.
Inclusive fitness: total affect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing offspring
and helping close relatives produce offspring
Hamilton’s Rule
Hamilton’s Rule: Quantitative measure for predicting when natural selection would favor
altruistic acts among related individuals
➢ Natural selection favors altruism when:
○ Br>C
■ Benefit to recipient (B)
■ Cost to the altruist ©
■ Coefficient of relatedness (the fraction of genes that, on average, are
shared; r)
Sexual Selection
Sexual Selection: A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited
characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.
➢ Sexy Son Hypothesis: If females mate with an attractive male, their offspring is likely to
be attractive as well
Intersexual selection: One sex choose mates on the basis of certain traits
Intrasexual selection: competition between members of the same sex for mates
Stats (sadly)
NOTE: THE FORMULAS ON APPENDIX A WHICH SHOULD BE PROVIDED
Negative Control: a group in which no response is expected
Positive Control: a group in which a positive response is already expected
Operational Definition: how you measure the dependent variable
Mode: value that occurs most frequently in a set
Mean: The sum of values divided by number of values
Median: The sequential center of values
Normal distribution
➢ 68% of sample data fall within 1 SD from the
mean
➢ 95% of sample data fall within 2 SD from the
mean
➢ 99.7% of the sample data fall within 3 SD
from the mean
➢ 100% of the sample data fall within 4 SD
from the mean
Variance: a measure of the spread of the data in a sample
➢ More spread=higher variance
Range: calculated by subtracting the smallest value by the largest value
Standard deviation and SEM
Standard deviation: the average distance from the mean
Standard Error of the Sample Mean (SE or SEM): a statistical estimate of how
accurately the sample mean estimates the population’s true mean
➢ Confidence interval: measured by 2(SEM)
○ Represents that we are 95% confident that the population mean lies within 2 SEM
from the mean
NOTE: When calculating the SEM with multiple trials use the number of trials or the number
used to calculate the mean
Error Bars
➢ If they don't overlap at all: significantly different
➢ If they overlap significantly: are not significantly different
➢ If they overlap slightly: the results are unclear
○ The larger the error bars, the more spread and variability there is
➢ IF the data are significant, you say:
○ “Evidence is sufficient to REJECT the null hypothesis”
○ This means you are allowed to adopt the Halt (your hypothesis!)
➢ IF the data are not significant, you say:
○ “Evidence is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis”
○ This means that it is too likely that H0
is true. The null hypothesis still stands.
Chi-Squared
Chi-Square: Use to see if there is a difference between observed and expected data large enough
for it to be significant
Degrees of freedom: number of variables allowed to be free
➢ Number of categories - 1
➢ The way to write the conclusion
○ The chi-squared value from the test was ___. At _ degrees of freedom and setting
our standard of significance to p=0.05, the critical chi-squared value is ___.
■ Since our χ2 value was larger than the critical value, we can reject the null
because there is enough evidence to suggest (write that there is some
relationship between the IV and DV)
■ Since our χ2 value was smaller than the critical value, we cannot reject the
null because there is not enough evidence to suggest (write that there is
no relationship between the IV and DV)
Different types of Graphs
Line: Measuring a change in something over time
Bar: Comparing individuals to each other with only one data point (CATEGORIES)
Scatter: Displaying PAIRS of numbers
Pie: Show percentages/ components of a whole (adding up to 100%)
system readjusts and a new equilibrium is established
Organic Chemistry
➢ Carbon
○ 4 valence electrons
Hydrocarbons: organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
Isomers: compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different
structures and hence different properties
➢ Structural isomers: differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
➢ Cis-trans isomers: carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms
differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds
➢ Enantiomers: isomers that are mirror images of each other
Functional groups
Functional groups: A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon
skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions
NOTE: I don't think this is very important to know the specific groups like this but it's here
anyway because why not; Also did I steal this from someone, absolutely because it's really
sexy
Macromolecules
Macromolecule: a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules; polymers
➢ Polysaccharides
➢ Proteins
➢ Nucleic acids
Polymer: long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent
bonds
Monomer: the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer
NOTE: Macromolecule → Polymer → Monomer
Dehydration synthesis: one monomer forms a covalent bond with another monomer; releasing a
water molecule in the process
➢ Synthesis of polymers
Hydrolysis: opposite of dehydration synthesis; polymers broken by the addition of a water
molecule
Macromolecule Monomer
name(s)
Polymer
name(s)
Examples Functions
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides;
simple sugars
Polysaccharides Glucose, lactose,
cellulose,
glycogen, starch
Energy storage,
structure,
communication
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Polynucleotides DNA, mRNA,
tRNA, rRNA
Information,
protein synthesis
Proteins Amino acids Polypeptides Insulin,
hemoglobin,
tubulin
Catalysis,
structure,
communication,
etc. etc.
Lipids N/A N/A Cholesterol,
phospholipids,
triglycerides,
estrogen
Membranes,
communication,
energy storage
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates: include sugars and polymers of sugars
➢ Monosaccharides: simple sugars
○ Glucose
➢ Disaccharide: two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
○ Glycosidic linkage: a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a
dehydration reaction
○ A 1-4 glycosidic linkage is a link formed between the number 1 carbon of one
glucose and the number 4 carbon of the second glucose.
Disaccharide Formed from Which Two Monosaccharides? Found Where?
Maltose Glucose and glucose Malt sugar used in brewing beer
Sucrose Glucose and fructose Table sugar
Lactose Glucose and galactose Milk
➢ Polysaccharides: macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand
monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
Type of Polysaccharide Examples
Storage ➢ Starch
○ 1-4 B glucose linkages
➢ Glycogen
○ storage polysaccharide produced by vertebrates
Structural ➢ Cellulose
○ Comprise cell wall of plants
○ Humans cannot digest cellulose because they lack
the enzyme that can hydrolyze its beta linkages
➢ Chitin
○ Used to build exoskeletons
Lipids
Lipid: Any of a group of large biological molecules that mix poorly, if at all, with water.
➢ HYDROPHOBIC
○ Reason: The relatively nonpolar C-H bonds in the hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids
Fat: constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
Fatty acid: long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length
Saturated fatty acid: have the maximum
amount of C-H bonds and don’t have any
double bonds.
➢ Most regular in shape, most solid
(highest melting temp)
Unsaturated fatty acid: has one or more
double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom
on each double-bonded carbon
➢ Most “kinked” in shape, most liquid-y
(lowest melting temp)
○ Prevents from packing close
enough to solidify which is why
it is usually liquid at room
temp.
Trans fats: An unsaturated fat containing one or more trans double bonds.
➢ Bad for you; horrible
Phospholipid: lipid made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate-linked head group.
➢ Phospholipid bilayer: two layers of phospholipids with their tails pointing inward, an
arrangement; shields their hydrophobic portions from water
Steroid: a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with
various chemical groups attached.
Proteins
Protein: molecule made up of one or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a specific
three dimensional structure
➢ Polypeptide: polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Type of protein Function Example
Enzymatic proteins Selective acceleration of
chemical reactions
Digestive enzymes
Defensive proteins Protection against disease Antibodies
Storage proteins Storage of amino acids Casein – protein in milk
Transport proteins Transport of substances Hemoglobin
Hormonal proteins Coordination of an
organism‘s activities
Insulin – regulate
Receptor proteins Response of cell to chemical
stimuli
Receptors in the membrane of
a nerve cell
Contractile and motor
proteins
Movement Motor proteins for the
undulations of cilia and
flagella
Structural proteins Support Keratin – protein of hair and
nails
Amino acid: organic molecule with both an
amino group and a carboxyl group
Chemically neutral
➢ The “R” group differs with each amino
acid; 20 different amino acids
Peptide bond: the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino
group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.
Protein Structure
Primary Structure: the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Secondary structure: Regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a
protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the amino acid
side chains).
➢ Alpha helix: a coiled structure of an amino acid chain
➢ Beta-pleated Sheet: an amino acid folded back on itself
Tertiary structure: overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side
chains
➢ Disulfide bonds/bridge: covalent linkages between the sulfur-containing side chains of
cysteines
➢ Hydrophobic interactions: amino acids with nonpolar, hydrophobic R groups cluster
together on the inside of the protein, leaving hydrophilic amino acids on the outside to
interact with surrounding water molecules.
➢ Ionic Bond/ Salt bridge: resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions;
formed by transferring electrons
➢ Hydrogen Bond: attraction between a hydrogen and an electronegative atom
Quaternary Structure: shape of protein structure with multiple tertiary polypeptide chains (not
all proteins have a quaternary structure)
Primary (1
O
) Secondary (2
O
) Tertiary (3
O
) Quaternary (4
O
)
Types of
interactions
Peptide bond
(covalent)
H bond H bond, salt
bridge, disulfide,
hydrophobic
H bond, salt
bridge, disulfide,
hydrophobic
All proteins? Yes Yes Yes No
Part of AA
interacting
Backbone
(internal)
Backbone
(external)
R groups R groups
Denaturation
Denaturation: a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak
chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive
Interaction 1
O 2
O 3
O 4
O Disrupted by
H-Bond NO YES YES YES Heat, pH change
Acid-base
“salt bridge”
(ionic)
NO NO YES YES
pH change, salt concentration
change
Disulfide bridge NO NO YES YES Reducing agents (redox reactions),
extreme heat
Hydrophobic
interactions
NO NO YES YES Heat
Chaperone Proteins
Chaperone Proteins: assist in the proper folding of proteins
1. An unfolded polypeptide enters the cylinder from one end
2. Cap attachment causes the cylinder to change shape, creating a hydrophilic environment
for polypeptide folding.
3. The cap comes off, and the properly folded protein is released.
Nucleotides
NOTE: Im including what I think is the chemistry portion of this
Nucleotides: composed of three parts: a five-carbon sugar (a pentose), a nitrogen-containing
(nitrogenous) base, and one or more phosphate groups
➢ Nucleoside: portion of a nucleotide without any phosphate groups
Pyrimidine: has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
➢ Cytosine (C)
➢ Thymine (T)
➢ Uracil (U)
Purines: larger, with a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
➢ Adenine (A)
➢ Guanine (G)
Standards: AP Biology Midyear 2025
This document lists the standards that will be assessed on the AP Biology Midyear. Remember that each standard corresponds to a Learning Objective (or Science Practice) in the College Board’s Course and Exam Description. Please refer to that document for the Essential Knowledge (or skills) for each standard. Unit numbers correspond to Dr. Schmidt’s class.
(Note: Unit 1, Ecology, will NOT be assessed on the midyear.)
Unit 2: Evolution - Natural Selection and Phylogenetics
Enduring Understandings (Themes across units in AP Bio)
Evolution is characterized by a change in the genetic makeup of a population over time and is supported by multiple lines of evidence.
Organisms are linked by lines of descent from common ancestry.
Life continues to evolve within a changing environment.
Naturally occurring diversity among and between components within biological systems affects interactions with the environment.
Learning Objectives for Unit 2
1.1 The student can describe the causes of natural selection and explain how natural selection affects populations (CED Topic 7.1)
1.2 The student can describe the importance of phenotypic variation in a population (CED Topic 7.2)
1.3 The student can explain how humans can affect diversity within a population (CED Topic 7.3)
1.4 The student can explain the relationship between changes in the environment and evolutionary changes in the population. (CED Topic 7.3)
1.5 The student can describe the types of data that provide evidence for evolution and explain how those data provide evidence that organisms have changed over time. (CED Topic 7.6)
1.6 The student can explain how evolution is an ongoing process in all living organisms. (CED Topic 7.8)
1.7 The student can describe the types of evidence that can be used to infer an evolutionary relationship (CED Topic 7.9)
1.8 The student can explain how a phylogenetic tree and/or cladogram can be used to infer evolutionary relatedness. (CED Topic 7.9)
1.9 The student can use evidence to construct the most parsimonious phylogenetic tree for a given set of data (CED Topic 7.9)
Unit 3: Behavior, Experimental Design, and Statistics
Note: This unit is primarily skills based. Therefore, most of the standards come from the science practices for AP Biology and are labeled as CED SP. These skills will continue to be tested in later units.
3.1 Explain how the behavioral and/or physiological response of an organism is related to changes in internal or external environment. (CED 8.1)
3.2 Identify or pose a testable question based on an observation, data, or a model. (CED SP 3A)
3.3 State the null or alternative hypotheses, or predict the results of an experiment. (CED SP 3B)
3.4 Identify experimental procedures that are aligned to the question, including
Identifying dependent and independent variables.
Identifying appropriate controls.
Justifying appropriate controls. (CED SP 3C)
3.5 Propose a new/next investigation based on
An evaluation of the evidence from an experiment.
An evaluation of the design/methods. (CED SP 3E)
3.6 Construct a graph, plot, or chart, including proper orientation, labeling, units, scaling, plotting, type, and trend line. (CED SP 4A)
3.7 Describe data from a table or graph, including
Identifying specific data points
Describing trends and/or patterns in the data.
Describing relationships between variables. (CED 4B)
3.8 Use confidence intervals and/or error bars (both determined using standard errors) to determine whether sample means are statistically different. (CED SP 5B)
3.9 Perform chi-square hypothesis testing. (CED SP 5C)
3.10 Use data to evaluate a hypothesis (or prediction), including
Rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis.
Supporting or refuting the alternative hypothesis. (CED 5D)
Unit 4: Biochemistry
Enduring Understandings:
Living systems are organized in a hierarchy of structural levels that interact.
The highly complex organization of living systems requires constant input of energy and the exchange of macromolecules.
Heritable information provides for continuity of life.
Cells have membranes that allow them to establish and maintain internal environments that are different from their external environments.
Learning Objectives: (see CED for essential knowledge for each objective)
Section 1: Basic biochemistry and macromolecules
Explain how the properties of water that result from its polarity and hydrogen bonding affect its biological function. (1.1)
Describe the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms. (1.2)
Describe the properties of the monomers and the type of bonds that connect the monomers in biological macromolecules. (1.3, 1.4)
Explain how a change in the subunits of a polymer may lead to changes in structure or function of the macromolecule. (1.5)
Describe the structural similarities and differences between DNA and RNA. (1.6)
Explain the intra- and intermolecular interactions that determine protein structure.
Section 2: Cell Membrane
Describe the roles of each of the components of the cell membrane in maintaining the internal environment of the cell. (2.4)
Describe the Fluid Mosaic Model of cell membranes. (2.4)
Transport, water potential, and osmosis will NOT be assessed on the midyear.
Section 3: Enzymes and Thermodynamics
Describe the properties of enzymes. (3.1)
Explain how enzymes affect the rate of biological reactions. (3.2)
Explain how changes to the structure of an enzyme may affect its function. (3.3)
Explain how the cellular environment affects enzyme activity. (3.3)
Describe the role of energy in living organisms. (3.4)
Specifics of thermodynamics/Gibbs free energy will NOT be assessed on the midyear.