U.S. Foreign Policy: Actors and Policy Outputs

Primary Foreign Policy Actors: The Executive Branch

  • The President of the United States

    • The President serves as the primary actor in the creation and establishment of America's foreign policy.

    • Constitutional Authorities:

      • Commander in Chief: Direct oversight of the armed forces.

      • Nominating Authority: Responsible for appointing executive officials and ambassadors.

      • Negotiator: Acts as the initial negotiator for international agreements and treaties.

    • Unilateral Action: Presidents often act nearly unilaterally when interacting with foreign leaders. This is facilitated by informal powers and personal relationships rather than formal legislative approval.

    • Factors of Influence: Foreign policy often depends on who the President talks to, the frequency of communication, and the international organizations the President chooses to prioritize.

  • The Vice President

    • The Vice President fulfills many of the same roles as the President regarding foreign policy.

    • Proxy Status: Acts as a proxy for the President when the President is unavailable for meetings or negotiations.

    • Informal Power: Their influence depends heavily on their specific relationship with the President and their rapport with foreign leaders.

  • Executive Appointees and Cabinet Leaders

    • Secretary of State:

      • The nation's chief diplomat and a member of the President’s cabinet.

      • Oversees the Foreign Service and all U.S. ambassadors.

    • Ambassadors:

      • Executive appointees who must receive Senate confirmation.

      • Varying Significance: Certain posts are critically important for regional security (e.g., Eastern Europe, Asia, parts of South America and Africa). Other posts are described as "cushy" jobs with fewer intensive duties, such as the ambassadors to Canada or Jamaica, where the primary goal is maintaining existing friendly relations.

    • Secretary of Defense:

      • The civilian head of the armed services and a cabinet member.

      • Acts as the intermediary ("go-between") for the Chiefs of Staff of the various military branches.

      • Ensures military readiness for day-to-day threats and reports status directly to the President.

    • Secretary of Homeland Security:

      • Oversees the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and serves in the cabinet.

      • Monitors national security threats and maintains U.S. borders.

      • Plays a key role in immigration policy. This involves developing international relationships to improve conditions in other countries, making staying in those countries more attractive than immigrating to the U.S.

    • National Security Adviser:

      • Oversees forces focused on maintaining national security.

      • Coordinates with the Secretaries of State, Defense, and Homeland Security.

      • Responsible for managing the information-gathering components of national security.

    • U.S. Trade Representative:

      • Responsible for negotiating and enforcing trade deals with other nations.

      • Ensures that both the United States and its partners honor international trade commitments.

    • Joint Chiefs of Staff:

      • Consists of the military leaders of each branch of the armed forces.

      • The Chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff works with the President daily on a granular level (e.g., specific troop movements or regional threats).

    • Director of National Intelligence:

      • Oversees all national spying and information-gathering operations.

      • The Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports directly to this official.

The Role of Congress in Foreign Policy

  • General Responsibilities:

    • While the Executive Branch is the primary crafter of policy, Congress manages foreign aid, writes immigration legislation, and funds the military and embassies.

  • The "Gang of Eight":

    • A colloquial term for a specific group of members of Congress briefed on classified intelligence by the Executive Branch.

    • Composition:

      • The Majority and Minority leaders of the House of Representatives (22 people).

      • The Majority and Minority leaders of the Senate (22 people).

      • The Chairs and Ranking Minority Members of the House and Senate intelligence committees (44 people).

  • Congressional Committees:

    • House of Representatives: Primarily the Foreign Affairs Committee. The House generally plays a less prominent role in foreign policy compared to the Senate.

    • Senate: Includes the Committee on Armed Services and the Committee on Foreign Relations. The Senate is more heavily involved because it holds the power to ratify treaties.

Broad Public Policy Outputs

  • Public Laws:

    • National Security Acts: Govern how the government shares and stores information gathered from allies and adversaries.

    • The Patriot Act: Grants the government broad powers to collect information on individuals for national security purposes.

    • The Homeland Security Act: Authorized the creation of the Department of Homeland Security.

    • War Powers Resolutions: Intended to control how the President engages in armed conflict with or without Congressional approval.

  • The Reauthorization Process:

    • A part of the budgetary process that specifically sets aside and authorizes funding for military initiatives, programs, and ambassadors.

  • International Agreements:

    • Treaties: Must be ratified by a 23\frac{2}{3} vote in the Senate. Once ratified, they carry the full force and weight of U.S. law or the Constitution.

    • Sole Executive Agreements: Negotiated and entered into unilaterally by the Executive Branch.

      • Example: The Paris Climate Accords. President Trump was able to withdraw from them unilaterally, and President Biden was able to re-enter them unilaterally.

    • Congressional-Executive Agreements: Negotiated by the executive but passed by a simple majority (> 50 \%) in both the House and the Senate.

      • Example: The USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement), which replaced NAFTA as the primary trade agreement in North America.

Sharply Focused Foreign Policy Outputs

  • Crisis Responses:

    • Man-made Crises: Examples include the September 11 attacks, the Hamas attacks in Israel, or the London underground bombings.

    • Natural Disasters: Examples include massive hurricanes, earthquakes, and the tsunami in Japan (approximately 10 years ago).

    • Strategic Purpose: Assisting allies during struggles ensures they are capable of aiding the U.S. with future military or economic threats.

  • Presidential Summits:

    • Meetings between the President and one or more heads of state.

    • Used for deep-dives into complex issues, or to negotiate treaties and international agreements.

  • Use of Military Force:

    • Since World War II, initial military force has typically been enacted unilaterally by Presidents.

    • Actions include: Deploying troops, conducting missile strikes, or enforcing no-fly zones.

    • War Powers Resolution: Though this allows Congress to reverse presidential military decisions, Congress has never actually elected to do so in practice.

  • Emergency Funding:

    • Funding bills passed by a majority vote in both chambers and signed by the President to address specific emergent issues.

    • While often used for domestic disasters (hurricanes, forest fires), they are used internationally to shore up relationships.

    • Current Examples: Authorized emergency funding to aid Ukraine in its war with Russia and to aid Israel in its conflict with Hamas.

Questions & Discussion

  • Student Inquiry: A student acknowledged the end of the lecture series for the summer and thanked the instructor (Doctor Hayes).

  • Response: Doctor Hayes concluded the final lecture of the summer session, expressing hope that the material would be useful to the students.