Language and Cognition Review

Language: Structural & Social Rules

  • Communication: Ability to communicate with people within one's culture; can involve collaboration and manipulation (e.g., deception).

  • System of Language: Composed of symbols (sounds or gestures), which are arranged to form structured utterances that convey meaning.

    • Phonemes: The smallest sound unit in a language.

    • Morphemes: The smallest unit of meaning in a language (includes words and modifiers).

    • Lexicon: A list of words and acceptable structures within a language.

    • Syntax: The structural rules that dictate the proper order of words.

    • Example: "A test have you next class." vs. "Next class you have a test."

    • Breakdown of the word "Bit":

      • "Bit"

      • Phonetic Breakdown: b - i - t (3 phonemes)

      • Morpheme Analysis: "I" (1 morpheme)

      • Additional example with prefixes and suffixes: Prefix "re-" (indicating redo) and Suffix "-est" (indicating the superlative).

  • Semantics: The literal meaning of words and phrases.

  • Pragmatics: The social context and style of communication.

    • Social Context: Understanding based on common ground. Adapting communication for different audiences (e.g., friends vs. strangers).

    • Style: Differences in how something is expressed can change the meaning (e.g., a request vs. an informal comment).

    • Rules of Communication: Includes taking turns, staying on topic, verbal pace, word choices.

The Role of the Environment

  • Language Deprivation: Cases like "Genie" (1313 years old) show that lack of early communication prevents proper grammar acquisition.

  • Environmental Support: Basic exposure to language is necessary for language development.

    • Infants and children learn by observing and imitating adult language.

    • Specific language features (e.g., syntactical structures) are acquired differently for each language (e.g., English, Spanish, German).

    • Reinforcement or encouragement aids in language learning but is not sufficient on its own.

  • Challenges with Exposure & Reinforcement:

    • Infants and toddlers learn words too quickly for simple reinforcement or imitation

    • Adults often inconsistently correct children’s syntax; but they still learn to speak correctly

    • Children are capable of creating novel word patterns not previously heard, illustrating a concept called Generativity.

    • Across various cultures, children exhibit similar stages of linguistic development

Biological Model of Language Development

  • Noam Chomsky: Proposed that humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at a specific time and in specific ways.

    • Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Innate biological mechanism including general grammatical rules, suggesting a theory of Universal Grammar.

    • Sensitive (Not Critical) Periods: Younger → Easier & more
      rapid language learning

Emergentist Language Explanation

  • Language development is influenced by both biological and environmental characteristics.

    • Biological characteristics permit the development of language but impose developmental constraints based on timing.

    • Environmental aspects lead to language specialization and individual differences among speakers of the same language.

Language Brain Regions of Interest

  • Broca’s Area: Located in the frontal lobe; responsible for speech production. Damage results in Broca’s Aphasia (difficulty with articulation and complex syntax).

  • Wernicke’s Area: Located in the temporal lobe; involved in organizing speech. Damage results in Wernicke’s Aphasia (fluent but nonsensical speech and impaired comprehension).

  • Central Linguistic Processes: Located within a left-brain network, including perisylvian regions, the middle temporal gyrus, and the ventral temporo-occipital regions.

Paul Broca’s Area (1861)

  • Functions related to:

    • Verbal Articulation: Impairments affect speech production.

    • Spoken Expression: Issues arise in forming words and sentences.

    • Spoken Comprehension: Simple sentences can be understood, but complex sentences pose problems.

    • Reading: Generally good comprehension.

    • Written Expression: Uncertain effects.

    • Motor Functions: Handwriting and typing are usually not affected.

Carl Wernicke’s Aphasia (1874)

  • Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to:

    • Speech Organization Deficits: Speech is fluent with well-structured phrases; however, it often lacks meaning (rambling).

    • Comprehension Deficits: Patients typically show difficulties in understanding spoken language and may be unaware of nonsensical speech they produce.

Bilingualism – 2nd Language Learning

  • Bilingualism: Correlated with higher cognitive flexibility, improved functioning, and enhanced analytic skills.

Infant Language Development

  • Dr. Patricia Kuhl’s Findings: Neuroplasticity enables infants to learn languages, but the ease of learning gradually declines.

    • Engagement and interaction with real people fosters communication through motivation.

  • Interventions for Young Babies:

    • Bilingual Training: Programs designed for infants to enhance their language skills,

    • 32 weeks, 1 hour per day, showing significant gains compared to conventional bilingual teaching methods.

  • Music in Social Environment: Participation in musical activities enhances pattern prediction relating to language development.

  • Parent Coaching: Encourages talking to infants using a rich linguistic style (known as "Parentese" or "Motherese").

Chimpanzee Communication

  • Research by Dr. Catherine Hobaiter: Focused on the communicative gestures of chimpanzees, identifying a lexicon of gestures that convey specific messages.

    • Chimpanzees engage in meaningful, intentional communication, unlike other species that communicate without exhibiting intentionality.

    • Gestures exhibit degrees of Theory of Mind and alter others' understanding or actions.

Cognition or Thinking

  • Definition: The process that occurs when information is being processed, organized, stored, communicated, or evaluated. It encompasses:

    • Associated with processing speed, memory capacity, attention, learning, and strategy formation.

    • Meta-cognition: Awareness of one’s own cognitive processes.

Reasoning / Problem Solving

  • Reasoning: Involves drawing conclusions or inferences based on observations, facts, or assumptions.

  • Problem Solving: A specific strategy aimed at achieving a goal when the goal is not immediately accessible.

Formal Algorithmic Reasoning

  • A structured problem-solving method guaranteed to yield a solution through systematic approaches.

    • Deductive Reasoning: Drawing specific implications from general premises (e.g., "Laura missed work. At work there was a party. Therefore, Laura missed the party.").

    • Mathematics Rules: Following established order of operations (e.g., PEMDAS).

Informal Reasoning

  • Diverse problem-solving methods that are less systematic than formal approaches, often yielding no single correct solution.

    • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts simplifying complex problems (e.g., solving a combination lock by feel rather than trial-and-error).

Common Heuristics

  • Rule-of-Thumb Heuristic: An approach that generally works for specific types of problems.

  • Subgoal Analysis Heuristic: Breaking complex tasks into manageable subtasks (e.g., writing a term paper involves multiple steps).

  • Other Heuristics:

    • Availability Heuristic: Making decisions based on readily available information.

    • Representative Heuristic: Judging similarity to prototypical examples (e.g., identifying whether a bird is similar to a typical bird).

Thinking Short-Cuts

  • Thin Slicing: Forming significant judgments based on brief observations, largely influenced by automatic thoughts.

Automaticity

  • Definition: Unconscious, rapid responses that can be innate or learned through exposure or conditioning.

  • Priming: Utilization of subtle cues triggering automatic responses and behaviors (e.g., imitating others’ communication style).

  • Chameleon Effect - Interpersonal Mimicry → imitate
    • verbal communication: same phrases, words, or tone
    • posture or non-verbal behaviours: crossed arms, leaning forward
    • facial expressions: smiling

Need for Closure

  • The tendency to make quick decisions due to discomfort with uncertainty, which can lead to suboptimal choices.

Thinking Limitations

  • Affective Bias: Decisions influenced by feelings and moods that can overshadow objective reasoning.

  • Mental Set: Resistance to viewing problems from new perspectives, limiting problem-solving efficacy.

  • Functional Fixedness: Restriction in viewing an object's functions, hindering creative solutions to problems.

Evaluation Limitations

  • Confirmation Bias: The act of seeking or interpreting information that affirms one's pre-existing beliefs, leading to skewed interpretations.

Interpretation Limitations

  • Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe one knew the outcome of an event after it occurs, which leads to psychological comfort but can impede learning from mistakes.

  • Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort arising from conflicting beliefs and actions, often resolved through adjustment of beliefs or perceptions.

Decision Making

  • Dual Process Model: Distinction between two types of decision-making systems:

    • System 1: Fast, automatic responses based on prior experiences (may be biased).

    • System 2: Slower, more deliberate responses requiring focused effort and energy.

Problem-Solving Obstacles

  • Limited perspective and lack of motivation can impede effective problem-solving, along with fear of making mistakes and becoming too emotional.

Scientific Method

  • A systematic approach to testing hypotheses through deductive and inductive reasoning, aimed at reducing bias and confirming generalizability of findings.