Exhaustive Guide to Absolute Monarchy, the English Revolution, and the Enlightenment

Absolute Monarchy in Spain and France

• The Concept of Absolute Power     * Absolute monarchs held consolidated power over their government and lands throughout Europe and the Americas.     * The philosophical underpinning for this authority was the "Divine Right," the belief that a monarch's authority comes directly from God.     * In theory, a monarch was supposed to act in the best interest of the public through this divine right, though the transcript notes this did not always occur.     * A critical observation on this power dynamic is attributed to the $19^{th}$ century British politician Lord Acton: "Absolute power corrupts absolutely."

• Philip II and the Spanish Empire     * Reign: Philip II ruled Spain from $1556$ to $1598$.     * Authority and Role: He inherited Spain and treated himself as the guardian of the Catholic Church in Europe.     * Wealth: The empire was financed largely by treasure and money flowing from the Americas.     * Rivalry with England: His main rival was Elizabeth I, who famously outmaneuvered him and walked the line of power more effectively.     * Military Conflict: In $1588$, the Spanish Armada attacked England but failed in its mission.     * Decline of Spain: Several factors led to the eventual weakening of the empire:         * The economy was over-reliant on treasure from the Americas, leading to significant inflation.         * Spain engaged in many costly overseas wars.         * Dutch and English fleets eventually outperformed Spanish ships.

• The Evolution of Royal Power in France     * Religious Conflict: France suffered through internal religious wars between the Catholic majority and Protestants known as Huguenots, resulting in thousands of deaths.     * Henry IV ($1589-1610$): He converted to Catholicism to stabilize the country and issued the Edict of Nantes in $1598$, which provided religious toleration for Huguenots.     * Cardinal Richelieu ($1624-1642$): He ruled alongside Louis XIII. Richelieu's primary goal was to strengthen the central monarchy by diminishing the power of the nobles and Huguenots, although he did not strip them of their basic rights.

• The Reign of Louis XIV ($1643-1715$)     * Absolutism Defined: Known for the phrase "L'etat c'est moi" (I am the state).     * The Estates General: This was a representative body composed of all social classes. During the height of royal power, it never met from $1614$ to $1789$.     * Economic Strengthening: Under his rule, the economy flourished through initiatives in farming, mining, and the development of colonies in the Americas.     * Military and Costs: He commanded the strongest army in Europe, but maintained it through exceptionally costly wars.     * Versailles: Louis XIV built a lavish palace outside of Paris. It served as the center of art and fashion and was used to keep nobles close to him, requiring them to compete for his attention rather than plot against him.

Conflict and Centralization in Central and Eastern Europe

• The Thirty Years' War ($1618-1648$)     * The conflict began as a political and religious struggle between Catholics and Protestants.     * The Spark: Protestant rebels in Bohemia killed officials of Ferdinand, the King of Bohemia and eventual Holy Roman Emperor (HRE), who had attempted to roll back Protestantism.     * Consequences: The war resulted in major depopulation across the region.     * Peace of Westphalia: This treaty ended the conflict and granted independence to the Netherlands, Switzerland, and approximately $360$ German states that failed to unite for $223$ years.

• The Rise of Austria and Prussia     * Hapsburg Austria: A Catholic power that expanded to include Bohemia, Hungary, and parts of Italy. This diverse empire was inherently difficult to govern.     * Maria Theresa: An absolute monarch of Austria who improved the state by taxing the nobles and clergy. Her accession led to the War of Austrian Succession due to a disagreement over her right to rule after the death of HRE Charles VI.     * Prussia: A Protestant power ruled by Frederick the Great ($1740-1786$). He was a brilliant military leader who seized provinces and established Prussia as a major power.

• The Modernization of Russia     * Peter the Great ($1682-1725$): An autocratic ruler who implemented a policy of "Westernization," incorporating Western ideas, technology, and culture to modernize Russia.     * Domestic Policy: He expanded serfdom and was ruthless toward dissent, often having rebels executed and their bodies left out as a warning.     * Infrastructure and Economy: He improved canals and waterways to encourage trade and promoted mining and manufacturing.     * Expansion: He fought the Swedish to gain a warm-water port on the Baltic Sea, where he built St. Petersburg. In the east, he defined Russia's border with China.     * Catherine the Great: She took power after her husband was assassinated. Like Peter, she was an autocratic leader who was harsh on peasants and seized new territory. However, she was also a modern reformer who westernized the government, codified laws, and started state-sponsored education for all.

• The Five Great Powers     * During this era, the five dominant powers were Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia.     * Alliances between these nations frequently switched to maintain the balance of power.     * Of these five, $\frac{4}{5}$ were ruled by absolute monarchs.

The English Revolution and the Growth of Parliament

• The Tudor Dynasty and Parliament     * Monarchs like Henry VIII and Elizabeth I believed in Divine Right but recognized the value of Parliament.     * They frequently utilized Parliament to secure money for wars and to pass key legislation, such as the Act of Supremacy.

• The Stuart Crisis     * James I and Charles I faced repeated clashes with Parliament over issues of finances and religion.     * Petition of Right ($1628$): Charles I was forced to sign this document, which prohibited the king from raising taxes or imprisoning individuals without the consent of Parliament. He eventually suppressed Parliament until the revolt of $1640$.

• The English Civil War     * The Factions: The war was fought between the Cavaliers (nobles who supported Charles I) and the Roundheads (supporters of Parliament, including Puritans and manufacturers led by Oliver Cromwell).     * Outcome: Parliament’s forces were victorious. In $1649$, Charles I was tried and executed, the first time an absolute monarch was executed for treason by his own people.

• The Commonwealth ($1649-1660$)     * Oliver Cromwell established himself as the "Lord Protector," effectively acting as a dictator.     * The Irish Conflict: Cromwell brutally suppressed Irish Catholics, killing many and exiling others to the west.     * The Rule of Saints: Under Puritan influence, "no fun" was allowed; however, education was considered key.

• The Restoration and Glorious Revolution     * Restoration ($1660$): Parliament invited Charles II back to the throne. He was a popular ruler who cooperated with Parliament.     * James II: He was an openly Catholic and proud ruler, leading to renewed tension.     * Glorious Revolution ($1688$): A bloodless transition of power occurred when Parliament invited Mary (the King’s Protestant daughter) and her Dutch husband William to rule. This event ended the era of absolute monarchy in England, establishing that the ruler must obey the law.

The Enlightenment: Reason and Reform

• Foundations of the Enlightenment     * Also known as the Age of Reason, this period emphasized natural laws, the scientific method, and human will over religious tradition.     * It promoted the idea that universal laws govern human behavior.     * Key values included individual achievement, individual rights, and democracy, which eventually encouraged revolutions worldwide.

• Politics and the Philosophes     * John Locke: Argued that people are born naturally good and possess inherent natural rights. He believed the government has a fundamental obligation to the people.     * Baron de Montesquieu: Proposed the separation of powers into $3$ branches of government to prevent tyranny.     * Voltaire: Utilized humor and satire to attack the slave trade and political corruption, while championing free speech.

• Society, Economics, and the Arts     * Women and Minority Groups: Women were typically excluded from the conversation of rights, and various institutional excuses were made for the continuation of slavery.     * Laissez-faire Economics: Economists argued that businesses should operate with little to no government interference.     * Free Market: The concept of free enterprise, driven by supply and demand, was championed to promote competition between businesses.     * Cultural Exchange: Writers used satire to fight censorship, and ideas were exchanged in "Salons"—informal social gatherings.

• Enlightened Despots     * Frederick the Great (Prussia): Promoted religious tolerance, a professional civil service, and a free press.     * Joseph II (Holy Roman Emperor/Austria): Ruled from $1765$ to $1790$. He incorporated the middle class into the government, expanded rights for Jews and Protestants, built hospitals, and supported a free press.