The Khitan Scripts: History, Structure, and Decipherment

Context of Script Adaptation in East Asia

  • In the 9th century, non-Chinese cultures in East Asia actively adapted Chinese characters to transcribe their native spoken languages:
    • The Japanese simplified Chinese characters to create the katakana syllabary, and adapted cursive Chinese script to form hiragana, using both scripts alongside Chinese characters (kanji).
    • The Koreans developed multiple methods to record their native language using Chinese characters as a foundation.
    • The Khitan people similarly modeled their writing systems on Chinese characters, producing two distinct scripts.

The Large Khitan Script

Rubbing of Large Khitan and Chinese text dating from 986

  • Creation and History:
    • Commissioned by Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao) and created in 920 AD by Yelü Tulübu (耶律突呂不).
    • According to the History of Liao (Liao Shi): creation began in the first month on the Yi-chou (乙丑) day during the fifth year of the Shenze (神冊, "Splendid Blessing") era, and was completed in the ninth month on the Ren-yin (壬寅) day.
  • Structure and Characteristics:
    • A logographic (ideographic/concept-based) writing system consisting of several thousand characters.
    • Some characters were directly derived from Chinese—either modified graphically or adopted without alteration—while others are of unknown origin.
    • Characters were written vertically from right to left in linear columns, maintaining equal spacing between individual signs, visually resembling Chinese text.
  • Usage by the Jurchens:
    • The Jurchen people adopted and utilized the Large Khitan script alongside Chinese until 1191 AD, when its use was formally banned by decree.
    • The Jurchens created their national script based on Chinese and Khitan scripts, borrowing orthographic rules and adopting modified Khitan characters.

The Small Khitan Script

Bronze mirror featuring an inscription in Small Khitan script

  • Creation and History:
    • Created in 925 AD (five years after the Large Khitan script) by Abaoji's younger brother, Diela (迭剌), to address the unwieldy and complex nature of the Large Khitan script.
    • Historically misidentified as identical to the Uyghur script because historical accounts noted Diela designed it after learning the Uyghur language and script.
  • Structural Elements:
    • Consisted of word-signs (logograms), syllable-signs (syllabograms), and letter-signs (phonograms).
    • Capable of recording full words as well as grammatical suffixes and derivative affixes.
    • Functional parallel: Similar to the Japanese Kanji-Kana mixed system, though unlike Japanese, there was no graphic distinction in style between Large and Small Khitan characters.
  • Classification of Syllable and Letter Signs:
    • A total of 378 distinct characters/signs are currently cataloged for the Small Khitan script.
    • Syllable and letter signs are categorized into five structural types:
    • Type A: Represents consonants only (C).
    • Type B: Represents vowels only (V).
    • Type C: Represents Consonant-Vowel syllables (CV).
    • Type D: Represents Vowel-Consonant syllables (VC).
    • Type E: Represents Consonant-Vowel-Consonant syllables (CVC).
  • Visual Block Arrangement:
    • Unlike the linear single-character spacing of the Large Khitan script, Small Khitan signs were clustered together into discrete linear block units.
    • This arrangement is visually and structurally analogous to the Korean Hangul script, where syllabic elements are grouped into structural blocks (e.g., Korean Hanguk 한국: composed of elements h-a-n and g-u-k).

Decipherment of the Khitan Scripts

  • Historical Loss of Knowledge:
    • By the Ming Dynasty, comprehension of Khitan characters had completely vanished.
    • Fragmentary historical documentations:
    • Wang Yi (王易) of the Song Dynasty recorded 3 Khitan characters in Yan bei lü (燕北録).
    • Tao Zong-yi (陶宗儀) preserved 5 Khitan characters in Shushi huiyao (書史会要).
  • Rediscovery of Epigraphic Material:
    • No substantial Khitan inscriptions were known until 1920, when a Khitan-language inscription erected by a Jurchen prince in 1134 (during the Jin Dynasty) was discovered; it was initially misidentified as Jurchen.
    • Systematic academic analysis began following numerous artifact discoveries throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
  • Bilingual and Parallel Texts:
    • Only two Chinese-Khitan parallel bilingual texts have been identified:
    1. Xuwang muzhi (許王墓誌)
    2. Langjun xingji (郎君行紀)
    • The epitaph of Empress Xuan-yi (宣懿) contains Chinese text, but structural differences make interpretation difficult, and the content likely does not directly match the Khitan text.
  • Decipherment Milestones:
    • An Inner Mongolian research group led by Činggeltei identified 378 signs of the Small Khitan script and successfully deciphered the phonetic readings of 130 signs.
    • In 1990, Han Baoxing (韓寶興) established the phonetic values of 200 signs based on two Liaoning monument inscriptions, though some values conflict with Činggeltei's readings.
  • Current Limitations:
    • Deciphered characters primarily allow for reading proper nouns, Chinese official titles, and personal names; full syntax and sentence decipherment remains incomplete.
    • Complete decipherment requires additional parallel texts or comprehensive Khitan-Chinese vocabularies (similar to existing glossaries for Tangut and Jurchen), which have not yet been discovered.

Related Subjects and Bibliographic References

  • Related Topics:
    • Khitan language
    • Jurchen script
  • Hungarian References:
    • Birtalan, Ágnes (1999): "Kitaj". In Fodor, István (ed.): A világ nyelvei. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, pp. 748–749.
    • Kara, György: Hit, hatalom és írás a mongol világban. Electronic edition: Terebess.
    • Ligeti, Lajos (1927): "A kitáj nép és nyelv". Magyar Nyelv, 23.
  • English References:
    • Kara, György (1986): "On the Khitan Writing systems". Mongolian Studies, 10.
    • Kara, György (2005): Books of the Mongolian Nomads. Bloomington: Indiana University Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies.
  • Mongolian References:
    • Цэвэлийн Шагдарсүрэн (2001): Монголчуудын үсэг бичигийн товчоон. Ulaanbaatar.
    • Жалайр Батбаяр (2001): Монгол уран бичлэгийн түүх. Ulaanbaatar.
  • Japanese References:
    • 西田龍雄 (2002): アジア古代文字の解読. 中公文庫.
    • 斎藤純男 (2003): 中期モンゴル語の文字と音声. 松香堂.
  • Chinese References:
    • 杨曾文 主编 (2005): 中国佛教基础知识. 宗教文化出版社.