Exhaustive Study Notes on Language Development, Intelligence, and Problem Solving
8.1 Language: Turning thoughts into words
Language is a fundamental characteristic separating humans from other species.
Language is primarily a system of communication involving symbols and sounds used for expressing thoughts and feelings.
8.1.1 Defining language
Language Characteristics:
Highly symbolic, using signs and symbols representing various meanings.
Infinitely generative, allowing limitless combinations to create new ideas.
Rule-governed, enabling universal production and interpretation of meaning.
Facilitates information exchange and social interaction.
The structure of language involves:
Medium of Transmission: The sounds produced in speech.
Grammar: How words are combined, governed by phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax.
Meaning: Semantics, which examines how words relate and construct meaning.
Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics: Study of the physical production of human speech sounds.
Phonology: Studies the systematic organization of sounds to convey meaning.
Phones: Distinct units of speech sound.
Phonemes: Sets of sound features significant in distinguishing meaning.
Example: The words "mass" and "mall" differ by a single phoneme substitution.
Phonetic variations are crucial in reading and writing skills across languages.
Grammar
Morphology: Examines meaningful units of language—morphemes, including root words, prefixes, and suffixes.
Example: "unhappiness" consists of three morphemes: "un-" (not), "happy" (root), "-ness" (state).
Syntax: Concerns the order of words forming sentences. Essential rules include the subject and predicate requirement.
Meaning
Semantics: Deals with relationships between words and their fundamental meanings.
Lexicon: A dictionary for the language, indicating the stock of words used.
Discourse: How written and spoken communication unfolds.
Example: Sentence "Unbreakable dark places jump lovingly" indicates correct syntax but nonsensical semantics demonstrating the need for both grammar and semantic understanding.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics: How language is used contextually, encompassing gestures and intonation.
Language adaptability is exemplified through changing communication styles in different social contexts (e.g., speaking to friends vs. family).
8.1.2 Milestones in language development
Key language-related skills development occurs sequentially during childhood (Siegler & Alibali, 2005).
Stages include:
Newborn phase: Explores sounds through cries and coos displaying emotional states.
Vocalization stage (3-4 months to 12 months): Babbling leads to understanding speech; children begin to produce word-like sounds.
Word development (10-18 months): Transition from speech perception to production. First words typically emerge around 12 months.
Sentence formation (18 months - 3 years): Usage of two-word sentences and advanced syntax begins.
Telegraphic Speech: Brief phrases that exclude non-essential words (e.g., "Give bottle").
Over-extension: Using a single word for related but distinct objects (e.g., calling all animals "cats").
Under-extension: Limiting the use of words to a narrower scope than relevant (e.g., using "brush" only for a personal toothbrush).
Over-regularization: Applying grammatical rules too broadly (e.g., saying "tooths" instead of "teeth").
Age-related Milestones:
0-5 months: Coos and vocalizes.
6-11 months: Babbles and begins to imitate sounds.
12-17 months: First words emerge; limited verbal responses.
18-23 months: Vocabulary expands significantly (4-50 words).
2-5 years: Rapid vocabulary acquisition; conversation skills develop.
8.1.3 Theories of language acquisition
Theories of language acquisition focus on the evolution of language development through various perspectives:
Behaviourist Theories: (Skinner, 1957) Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement.
Vocalizations are shaped over time by reinforcements until correct use is achieved.
Issue: Children often use grammatical structures not directly observed in their environment.
Nativist Theories: (Chomsky, 1959, 1965) Proposes an innate ability for language acquisition.
Introduced the concept of a ‘language acquisition device.’
Points to rapid and universal language development in children.
Interactionist Theories: Suggests a synthesis of biological predispositions and social experience in language learning.
Emphasizes the role of social interactions in learning language.
8.1.4 Learning more than one language: Bilingualism
Bilingualism: The acquisition of two languages, introducing complexities in language development.
Approximately half of the global population grows up bilingual.
Addressing bilingual educational policies may spark controversy regarding language acquisition and educational effectiveness.
Dissertation of Bilingual Education Goals: Effective bilingual education involves teaching subjects in a child's home language initially, transitioning to mainstream languages (e.g., English).
Impacts of Bilingualism
Cognitive advantages include: enhanced attention control and cognitive flexibility in bilingual individuals.
Potential disadvantages involve: raw language processing speed and fluency.
Instances of cross-language interference during language tasks have been observed.
Some research suggests bilingualism may delay cognitive decline in aging, notably in Alzheimer's studies.
8.1.5 Culture, language and thought
Language influences and interacts with thought, culminating in the linguistic relativity hypothesis proposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf (1956).
Critiques of Whorf's hypothesis include the assertion that language doesn't universally dictate cognition, although cultural context does shape thought processes.
Various cultural aspects, such as color differentiation and categorization, showcase how perception may be influenced by language.
The general state of linguistic relativity posits that language plays a role in shaping cognition, although not definitively constraining it.
8.2 Problem solving: In search of solutions
Identification of successful problem-solving strategies and obstacles influencing decision-making processes.
8.2.1 Types of problems
Problem-solving classifications by Jim Greeno:
Inducing structure - finding relationships among components.
Arrangement - arranging components to satisfy a criterion.
Transformation - carrying out sequences to reach a goal.
8.2.2 Barriers to effective problem solving
Common barriers include focusing on irrelevant information, functional fixedness, mental sets, and imposing unnecessary constraints.
Focus on irrelevant
Information can misguide problem-solving efforts, making successful resolution difficult.
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to only view an object in its usual use contributes to constrained thinking in problem solving.
Mental Set
Persistence in using established strategies can lead to rigidity detrimental to solving new problems effectively.
Unnecessary Constraints
Imposing limitations not specified in the problem statement can hinder creative thinking and problem resolution.
8.2.3 Approaches to problem solving
Effective problem-solving strategies involve heuristics, trial-and-error, forming subgoals, searching for analogies, and changing problem representations.
8.2.4 Taking a break: Incubation
The effect of incubation suggests that stepping away from a problem can lead to breakthroughs in perspective and potential solutions.
8.2.5 Culture, cognitive style, and problem solving
Variations in cognitive styles due to cultural backgrounds can impact problem-solving dynamics, indicating significant differences in approach and thought processing across cultures.
8.4 Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence can be defined and measured through various approaches and through its significance in societal contexts.
8.4.1 The concept of intelligence
Intelligence refers to mental ability to solve problems, attend to tasks, and comprehend complex ideas.
Two primary approaches to intelligence: psychometric (numerical representation via IQ tests) and theoretical (understanding the underlying nature of intelligence).
8.4.2 A brief history
Historical context of intelligence testing from Binet's original work through Terman's contributions leading to the Stanford-Binet scale and Wechsler's methodologies designed for adult assessment.
8.4.3 What do modern IQ scores mean?
Modern IQ tests utilize deviation IQ scores positioned within a normal distribution model where the mean IQ is set at 100.
8.4.4 Do intelligence tests have adequate reliability?
High reliability demonstrated in IQ tests, but variability in motivation and environment can lead to score inaccuracies.
8.4.5 Do intelligence tests have adequate validity?
Validity indicates that tests measure what they claim; modern IQ tests are valid in predicting academic performance but narrower in assessing overall intelligence.
8.4.6 Do intelligence tests predict vocational success?
Positive correlation between IQ and occupational status, though this relationship is moderate and context-dependent.
8.4.7 Are IQ tests widely used in all cultures?
IQ testing is prevalent in Western societies while facing challenges and mixed acceptance in non-Western cultures.
8.4.8 Intelligence testing in contemporary South Africa today
Ongoing use of psychological assessments amidst multicultural contexts requiring cultural sensitivity.
8.5 Heredity and environment as determinants of intelligence
Both genetic and environmental factors significantly influence intelligence, interplaying in complex and multifaceted ways.
8.5.1 Evidence for hereditary influence
Research indicates genetic composition can influence intelligence, supported by twin and adoption studies.
8.5.2 Evidence for environmental influence
Environmental factors include family upbringing, exposure to learning environments, and socioeconomic status.
8.5.3 The interaction of heredity and environment
Interaction between genetics and environment leads to response ranges that influence where individuals fall within their IQ limits.
8.5.4 IQ scores and the influence of heredity and environment
Persistent ethnic differences in IQ scores prompt debates about genetic versus environmental influences.
8.6 New directions in the study of intelligence
8.6.1 Exploring biological correlates of intelligence
Biological implications include brain size correlations with IQ and the potential for environmental effects to modify these characteristics.
8.6.2 Investigating cognitive processes in intelligent behaviour
Sternberg's model of intelligence emphasizes analytical, practical, and creative dimensions, broadening beyond conventional IQ scope.
8.6.3 Expanding the concept of intelligence
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes varying competencies beyond conventional IQ metrics, influencing educational frameworks and discussions around recognized forms of intelligence.