SAT & ACT English: Comprehensive Study Notes

Standard English Conventions

When a question presents 4 versions of the same verb, first check subject–verb agreement.
- Identify the true grammatical subject.
- Usually, the first noun in the phrase is the subject.
- Ignore descriptive phrases, prepositional phrases, and non-essential clauses set off by commas.
- Example subject phrase: “Organic material that is sent to landfills”
- Subject = organic material (singular), not landfills (plural).
- Regular verbs:
- Singular form typically ends in “-s”.
- Plural form typically has no final “-s”.
- Eliminate choices whose verb form does not match the subject number.
- In the example, choices A, B, D are plural ⇒ incorrect; choice C is singular ⇒ correct.
If two choices remain after agreement is resolved, check tense.
- Use other verbs and context to decide whether the sentence is in the past, present, or future.

Introductory phrases act as modifiers and must be followed immediately by the noun they describe.
- Example introductory modifier: “based on events that occurred when Rabinal was a city-state ruled by a king.”
- The noun that follows must logically be “based on events.”
- A book can be based on events, a person cannot.
- Correct answer places the book right after the modifier (choice A in the transcript).

Step 1: Decide whether the words on each side of the punctuation are independent clauses (IC) or dependent clauses (DC).
- IC = subject + verb + complete thought.
- DC = cannot stand alone.
If both sides are IC: only three punctuation options are correct:
- Period (.)
- Semicolon (;)
- Comma + coordinating conjunction and (", and")
- If you see any two of these in the same location, eliminate both—they are redundant; only one can be correct.
If one side is DC: eliminate any option that uses a period, semicolon, or comma + and.
Decide whether a comma is needed:
- Use commas for:
- Lists
- After introductory phrases
- Around non-essential information
- Between IC + DC when DC comes first
Other punctuation:
- Colon (:)
- Introduces a list, example, explanation, or definition.
- Dash (—)
- Sets off non-essential or abrupt information; more dramatic than a comma.
Semicolons can also separate complex lists; always read to the end of the sentence to ensure you are not missing that structure.
Example sentence in transcript requires no punctuation ⇒ correct answer D.

"It’s" and "who’s" are contractions.
- Test: Replace with “it is / who is” (or less commonly “it has / who has”). The sentence must still make sense.
- “I am only happy when it’s raining out.” ⇒ “it is” ✓
- “Who’s at the door?” ⇒ “who is” ✓
"Its" and "whose" are possessive pronouns—indicate ownership, never contain an apostrophe.
- “The cat was wearing its blue collar …”
- “That’s the teacher whose student got expelled.”

Step 1: Determine the relationship between the ideas before and after the transition:
- Agreement / continuation ⇒ positive transitions (e.g.
  "furthermore", "moreover")
- Contrast ⇒ negative transitions (e.g.
  "however", "nevertheless")
- Cause → effect ⇒ causal transitions (e.g.
  "therefore", "consequently")
Process of elimination: Cross out any choices whose category doesn’t match the sentence’s logical relationship.
Example from transcript:
- Prior clause: author did not reject traditional forms.
- Following clause: author did something non-traditional.
- Relationship = contrast ⇒ choose the single negative transition (choice B: “even though”).
- Additional clue: the phrase begins with “even”, which pairs naturally with “though.”
Grammar-oriented transition questions:
- Apply punctuation rules above.
- A transition in mid-sentence must be surrounded by two commas.
- “In the morning, however, I like to have coffee.”

Best evidence is often the concluding sentence of the paragraph or passage.
Correct answer is a broad, overarching statement; it will not focus on a single detail.

Identify and understand the claim before reading the answer choices.
Science passages often substitute variables or synonyms; distill claim to simplest form with notes.
- Transcript example:
- Claim: “Decline in dusky sharks ⇒ decline in eastern oysters.”
- Simplify: \downarrow \text{sharks} = \downarrow \text{oysters}
- Hidden causal chain: \downarrow \text{sharks} = \uparrow \text{cownose rays} = \downarrow \text{oysters}
Select the evidence choice that explicitly follows that logical chain.
- Only choice D meets both conditions in example.

Do not start by hunting for wrong numbers.
Goal: Confirm or refute the claim.
- Create a quick checklist from the claim (e.g.
  “one similarity, two works”).
Test each answer choice against the checklist.
- Example: Only choice B checked both boxes ⇒ correct.

Read the preceding and following sentences (sometimes the whole passage).
Ask: What role does the underlined portion play?
- Elaborates? Contrasts? Sets a scene? States a claim? Provides evidence?

Trim the fat: Cross out adjectives, adverbs, extraneous details; reduce to subject + verb + core idea.
Leverage passage clues:
- Transition words for tone/relationship.
- Punctuation (especially colons) for definition or explanation.
Categorize answer choices broadly by tone or topic (positive vs. negative, supportive vs. contradictory).
Transcript example goal: find line proving “ongoing cycle of anticipation → regret.”
- Checklist:
- Contains cycle indicators.
- Shows anticipation (positive) then regret (negative).
- Choice B: “coming / departing” (cycle) and “high / sigh” (positive → negative) ⇒ only answer meeting both.

Attempt every question; there are no penalties for guessing.
Eliminate clearly wrong answers—there is always a definable reason.
If stuck, guess, mark, and return later.
Budget: ≈ 30 seconds/question to leave review time.
Read with a purpose:
- Highlight/annotate main ideas and key details.
- Perform quick mental checks after each sentence.
Before viewing options, try to predict the ideal answer or at least the type of answer needed.