Indigenous Peoples in Southwest Virginia: Cherokee and Shawnee - Study Notes

Course logistics

• Discussion boards are due on Fridays. You must post your word count in the post using the new rubric. Not posting the word count can result in points being deducted.
• If discussion boards are posted after Friday 11:59 PM and submitted over the weekend, they receive 50% off credit.
• Discussion boards close on Sunday; no points after that deadline.
• When emailing, use Canva or Canvas for weekend inquiries to ensure you get notifications quickly (Outlook may not deliver weekend emails if not routed through Canvas).
• The instructor will continue to post videos for discussion boards, but they are not the sole source of information—you should do your own research as well.

Overview of week’s topic

• Focus: Indigenous people in Southwest Virginia.
• Primary groups covered in this session: Cherokee and Shawnee.
• You may explore a third group on your own, but the main in-class focus is on Cherokee and Shawnee.
• Purpose: Provide a brief historical background and emphasize the spiritual beliefs and lifeways of these groups, with an emphasis on how they lived in the Appalachian region before and during early contact with Europeans.

Cherokee: historical background and homeland

• Origins and age of the group:
  • The Cherokee are described as an older, well-established people.
  • Their roots are traced to around 800\ \text{CE}, with influence from Mississippian culture and possibly Woodland culture in the Southeast.
  • Their language is noted as part of a broader language family that reflects deep regional roots; this suggests roots in towns established in the Appalachia region long before European contact.
• Geography and settlement:
  • Historically among the Southeastern United States, with homeland in the Appalachian region and surrounding areas including present-day parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Virginia.
  • They established large, organized towns along rivers and practiced agriculture and trade.
• Movement and later history:
  • The Cherokee are described as coming down from the Gulf Coast toward Appalachia.
  • Their homeland was reduced after removal known as the Trail of Tears, leading to relocation to Oklahoma in the 1800s.
• Religion and leadership:
  • Belief in a creator central to life, referred to as the Great Spirit (spelled in the notes; pronunciation provided).
  • Sacred beings and guides are part of a broader spiritual world.
  • Leaders: medicine men served as spiritual leaders; there were individuals described as priests who guided rituals and ceremonies.
  • Sacred practices did not revolve around grand temple buildings; leaders acted more as meditators between the people and the spiritual world.
• Rituals and sacred practices:
  • Fire as a sacred medium used to carry out prayers and offerings.
  • Offerings included tobacco, animal parts, and corn.
  • Sacred gatherings and rituals centered on maintaining harmony with the spiritual world.
• Festivals and seasonal cycles:
  • Green Corn Ceremony is the most important Cherokee festival.
  • Held each summer when the corn crop ripens; symbols of renewal, purification, and rebirth.
  • Ritual activities include thanksgiving prayers to the creator of life, extinguishing old fires and lighting new fires, forgiveness of wrongs, cleansing, dances.
• worldview and meaning of nature:
  • Nature is sacred and alive; rivers, mountains, trees, and animals carry spiritual power.
  • Everything in daily life has a spiritual dimension; humans are interwoven with the natural world.
  • Sightings of animals or natural signs are interpreted as messages or warnings from the spiritual world.
• Contemporary context and regional links:
  • Cherokee history in the Appalachian region predates European contact; their presence is tied to the rivers and valleys of the Southeast.
  • The Trail of Tears dramatically reshaped their homeland and demographics in the 19th century.

Shawnee: historical background and homeland

• Origins and age of the group:
  • Shawnee origins are harder to trace than Cherokee and are linked to the Ohio Valley region.
  • They are associated with mound-building cultures and older ancestral lineages from Hopewell and Adena.
• Archaeological and cultural roots:
  • Ancestors are tied to mound-building cultures in the Ohio Valley.
  • The Shawnee’s mound-building heritage is traced to about 1000\ \text{BCE}.
  • The Hopewell culture is estimated to appear around 200\ \text{BCE}, and the Adena around 1000\ \text{BCE}.
  • These cultures fed into Shawnee identity and social organization prior to their movement into the Southwest Virginia region.
• Geography and settlement:
  • Historically associated with the Ohio Valley, and later movement into areas including present-day Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and parts of West Virginia.
  • The region of interest includes present-day Southwest Virginia, with ties to local Shawnee heritage near the Virginia–West Virginia border.
• Migration and interaction:
  • The Shawnee moved down from the northern Ohio Valley toward the southern Appalachian region, integrating with or moving alongside other Native groups.
  • They share cultural links with earlier mound-building groups (Hopewell and Adena) and their own distinctive practices.
• Religion and leadership:
  • Like the Cherokee, the Shawnee believed in a creator who is central to life, known by the name Monita.
  • Rituals and ceremonies were guided by priests who led religious practices.
  • Sacred practice relied on mediation between humans and the spiritual world rather than monumental temples or hierarchical temple structures.
• Rituals and sacred practices:
  • Fire is a sacred medium used to carry prayers and offerings.
  • Offerings included tobacco, animal parts, and corn.
• Festivals and seasonal cycles:
  • The Shawnee observe spring and fall festival cycles tied to planting and harvest rhythms.
  • These festivals emphasize balance and renewal in nature and community life.
• worldview and relation to nature:
  • Nature is alive and sacred; the world is filled with spiritual powers in rivers, mountains, trees, and animals.
  • Emphasizes balance, respect for nature, and daily survival as integral to spiritual life.
• Contemporary context and regional links:
  • The Shawnee are associated with present-day Oklahoma from historical relocations, as well as ties to the Ohio Valley and areas of West Virginia.
  • In certain parts of present-day Southwest Virginia, Shawnee heritage is recognized due to historical movement and settlement patterns.

Shared beliefs and contrasts between Cherokee and Shawnee

• Creator and spiritual beings:
  • Both groups acknowledge a creator central to life (Cherokee: Great Spirit; Shawnee: Monita).
  • Both recognize additional spiritual beings/guides and a broader spiritual world.
• Ritual structure and leadership:
  • Both rely on ritual specialists (Cherokee: medicine men; Shawnee: priests) to guide ceremonies and maintain the link between people and the spirit world.
  • Emphasis on mediation rather than monumental religious architecture; no grand temples described.
• Sacred elements and practices:
  • Fire used as a sacred medium for prayers and offerings; tobacco, animal parts, and corn used in offerings.
• Festivals and cycles of renewal:
  • Cherokee: Green Corn Ceremony signals renewal, purification, rebirth, and communal thanksgiving.
  • Shawnee: Spring and Fall festivals emphasize balance, renewal, and agricultural cycles.
• Worldview of nature:
  • Both view nature as alive and imbued with spiritual power.
  • Rivers, mountains, trees, and animals are interconnected with human life and daily survival.
• Evidence base and historical notes:
  • The Cherokee have more documentary traces in Appalachian Southeast; Shawnee history is harder to pin down due to fewer contemporaneous records, but both have deep ties to mound-building traditions through ancestral lineages.

Regional context and research notes

• Southwest Virginia region context:
  • The area around Tazewell County and nearby counties is historically tied to Shawnee heritage and broader Indigenous presence before and after European contact.
  • West Virginia border regions and the Ohio Valley are relevant for understanding Shawnee origins and migrations.
• European contact and removal:
  • Both tribes experienced significant disruption through forced removal (Cherokee via the Trail of Tears to Oklahoma in the 19th century; Shawnee relocation in broader regional history).
• An invitation to research:
  • This overview is not exhaustive; students are encouraged to conduct their own research and focus on one group for a paper.
  • The instructor notes the need for deeper exploration and offers to answer questions about research directions.

Important terms and concepts (glossary)

• Green Corn Ceremony: Cherokee agricultural festival marking renewal, purification, and gratitude.
• Hopewell: An ancient mound-building culture in the Ohio Valley around 200\ \text{BCE}.
• Adena: An earlier mound-building culture in the Ohio Valley around 1000\ \text{BCE}.
• Mississippian culture: A mound-building, agriculturally-based cultural complex influencing Southeastern groups such as the Cherokee.
• Woodland culture (Southeast): Earlier prehistoric culture influencing settlement and technology in the Southeast.
• Trail of Tears: Forced relocation of the Cherokee to Oklahoma in the 1830s.
• Monita: The Shawnee name for the Creator.
• Great Spirit: A term used by Cherokee for the central Creator; included as their spiritual central figure.
• Medicine men: Cherokee spiritual leaders who guide rituals.
• Priests: Shawnee spiritual leaders who guide ceremonies.
• Fire as a sacred medium: Used to carry prayers and offerings in both cultures.
• Sacred offerings: Tobacco, animal parts, and corn used in religious offerings.
• Renewal cycle: The concept of renewal, purification, and balance in seasonal ceremonies.

Research prompts for further study

• Compare and contrast Cherokee Green Corn Ceremony with Shawnee spring/fall festivals in terms of symbolisms and agricultural cycles.
• Explore how mound-building cultures (Hopewell, Adena) influenced Shawnee identity and settlement patterns.
• Investigate how the Trail of Tears and 19th-century relocations affected Cherokee communities in Oklahoma and the broader Southeast region.
• Assess the role of natural features (rivers, mountains, forests) in shaping Indigenous worldviews in Appalachia.
• Examine the role of oral tradition in preserving history and religion for Cherokee and Shawnee in the absence of extensive written records.

Quick references to keep in mind (contextual reminders)

• Cherokee and Shawnee both emphasize a creator figure and a spiritual worldview that permeates daily life and natural elements.
• Fire, offerings, and ritual mediation play central roles in religious practice.
• Seasonal festivals reflect a shared emphasis on renewal and balance with the land.
• This overview is a starting point; further research will deepen understanding of each group’s distinct identity and regional history.