The 1960 Presidential Election Flashcards
The "Checkers" Speech of 1952
Background and Allegations: During the 1952 campaign, while running for Vice President, Richard Nixon faced allegations of operating an illegal "slush fund."
Nixon’s Defense: In response to these allegations, Nixon attributed his assets, debts, and sources of income to his own hard work and personal financial history rather than illegal contributions.
Satisfaction and Integrity: Nixon expressed that he and his wife, Pat, felt "satisfaction" because they had earned what they had through legitimate means.
The Signature Gift: Nixon famously stated that he received one specific gift that he intended to keep regardless of the controversy: a dog named Checkers that his children loved.
Historical Interpretation:
Irwin Gellman’s View: Gellman describes the "general tenor" of how Nixon is viewed as often being shaped by bias.
Liberal Commentators: Gellman notes that liberal commentators typically view the "Checkers" speech with skepticism or disdain, often seeing it as manipulative.
Gellman’s Rebuttal: Gellman argues that this negative view is a specific narrative constructed by critics rather than a objective reflection of the event's impact or Nixon's intent.
Dwight D. Eisenhower and Pat Nixon
The Mythology of Abandonment: A prevailing myth regarding the 1960 election is that Richard Nixon lost because he lacked the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who allegedly did little to aid Nixon's campaign.
Gellman’s Challenge to the Mythology: Irwin Gellman argues that these claims are historically inaccurate. He asserts that authors who promoted this idea wrote what they believed the public wanted to read rather than what truly happened.
Eisenhower’s True Stance: Gellman believes that Eisenhower strongly desired a Nixon victory. Eisenhower viewed John F. Kennedy as an "inexperienced kid" and preferred Nixon, a man with significant legislative experience who would continue the administration’s legacy.
Gender Dynamics in 1960: For the first time in history, more women voted than men during the 1960 election. This shift is often attributed to the charisma and physical appearance of John F. Kennedy.
The Role of Pat Nixon: Pat Nixon was a central figure in the campaign. Gellman describes her as ambitious, highly intelligent, and a fierce defender of her husband. Her importance is evidenced in personal correspondence between Nixon and Eisenhower, where Eisenhower frequently included messages such as “say thank you to Pat for me.”
The Vice Presidential Candidates
Lyndon B. Johnson’s Impact: Irwin Gellman argues that John F. Kennedy would likely not have won the 1960 election without LBJ on the ticket. Johnson provided critical Southern support, appealed to more conservative Democrats, and provided a necessary balance of experience to Kennedy's youthful image.
Media Coverage of Corruption: Gellman critiques the media's coverage of Johnson-related corruption, stating it was often oversimplified. While there were rumors of fraud, Gellman notes there was no definitive way to prove it at the time.
Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (GOP Candidate):
Luke Nichter’s Perspective: Nichter wonders why Lodge is often historically forgotten. While Lodge was experienced and respected, he lacked the political strategy and impact that Johnson brought to the Democratic ticket.
Gellman on the "Lodge Fable": Gellman responds to the high praise often given to Lodge by calling it a "fable." He believes Lodge was overpraised and did not actually help the Republican ticket as much as is widely claimed.
The Arrest of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Initial Loyalties: According to Virginia Prescott, Martin Luther King, Sr. originally preferred Richard Nixon over John F. Kennedy.
The "October Surprise": The arrest of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. served as an unexpected turning point that forced the candidates to address the issue of race, which both had previously avoided.
Campaign Responses:
Kennedy Campaign: Upon the suggestion of a staff member, John F. Kennedy called Coretta Scott King to offer sympathy. This move was designed to earn the support of Black voters.
Nixon Campaign: Nixon chose to remain silent regarding the arrest to avoid alienating white Southern voters.
The "Fable" of the Black Vote:
Statistical Data: From 1936 to 1960, Black voters generally supported Democratic candidates. In 1960, approximately of Black voters supported Kennedy.
Impact of the Action: While many believe Kennedy’s call changed the Black vote massively, Gellman argues this is a bit of a "fable." While he gained some votes, the change was not as monumental as historical accounts often suggest.
Religion and the 1960 Campaign
Voting Statistics:
A significant portion of Kennedy's support came from Catholic voters.
Conversely, Richard Nixon received a high percentage of the Protestant vote.
Strategy Shift: Irwin Gellman notes that when the anticipated landslide for Kennedy did not materialize, the campaign had to adjust its strategy rapidly.
Kennedy on Church and State: In his public comments, John F. Kennedy emphasized a strict separation of church and state, arguing that his religious affiliation should not dictate his policy or loyalty to the Constitution.
The "Finger of Suspicion": Kennedy spoke out against the "finger of suspicion" directed at Catholic candidates, arguing that religion should not be a deciding factor in Presidential elections.
Allegations of Electoral Fraud
Electoral Mapping: Irwin Gellman compares 1960 election maps to today’s political climate, noting the regions that were contested were different from current alignments.
Critical States: Richard Nixon could have potentially won the presidency if he had secured two specific states. Gellman points out that Kennedy's primary challenge was simply "keeping his base."
Chicago Vote Recounts: William Rorabaugh notes that during recounts in Chicago, Illinois, evidence suggested both parties were involved in questionable practices.
Detection Technology: Today, computers can be used to determine evidence of vote tampering by analyzing statistical anomalies in voting patterns.
The First Television Debate
The Plan: Joel Swerdlow notes that a specific plan was devised to navigate the first-ever televised presidential debate.
Visual vs. Audio Perception:
Television Viewers: Generally viewed Kennedy as the winner due to his composed, tan, and healthy appearance.
Radio Listeners: Often perceived Nixon as the winner or thought the debate was a draw, as they focused only on the verbal content rather than Nixon's visible sweating and pale complexion.
Content Comparison: While Kennedy appeared more "televisual," the actual content of their responses showed both candidates were highly capable, though their delivery methods differed significantly.
The Impact of the Debates
Focus Group Results: Tom Oliphant notes that viewers in focus groups generally preferred Kennedy after watching all four debates.
Influence on Voters: A small but critical percentage of voters had their final decision affected by the debates. Those influenced by the televised performance generally tilted toward Kennedy.
Gellman’s Critique: Irwin Gellman dismisses some of the extreme claims about the debate's impact as "nonsense," arguing that the initial reaction was more nuanced than history suggests.
Final Election Results
Voter Participation: Approximately million Americans went to the polls in 1960, demonstrating a sense of "kinship" as they collectively chose their leadership.
The Role of Television: Television networks broadcasted election returns in real-time. It became obvious early in the night that the election would be incredibly close.
Electoral College Requirements:
To win the Presidency, a candidate needed at least electoral votes.
Key States: California, Texas, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio were the pivotal states that decided the outcome.
Outcome: The lead fluctuated between Nixon and Kennedy throughout the night. Ultimately, John F. Kennedy emerged as the winner.