APEH TOPICS 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9 (no romanticism)

Chapter 1: Introduction

  • Post-Napoleonic Era

    • After Napoleon’s defeat, Congress of Vienna aimed to restore balance of power in Europe.

    • Attempt to contain revolutionary and nationalistic upheavals.

    • Struggles between states for international stability amidst rising nationalism.

  • Concert of Europe

    • A collective system formed to maintain status quo through conservative adherence.

    • Architect: Clemens von Metternich; focused on suppressing nationalists and liberal revolutions.

    • Conservatives regained control, stifling movements for change.

  • Vienna Settlement Goals

    • Aim for legitimacy, compensation, and balance of power.

    • Restored deposed rulers, e.g., Bourbons in France.

    • Redrew territorial boundaries across Europe to prevent dominance by any single state, especially France.

  • Principle of Legitimacy

    • Restored ruling families forgotten during revolutions: Bourbons in France, Spain, Naples, and other dynastic rulers in Europe.

    • Papal states returned to the Pope to reestablish authority.

  • Principle of Compensation

    • Rewarded states for sacrifices against Napoleon; granting territorial gains to Britain, Russia, and Austria.

    • Strategic territorial expansions for England (including Malta and Ceylon), Austria (Lombardy, Venetia, etc.), Russia (Poland, Finland), and Prussia (Rhineland, Saxony).

  • Balance of Power Strategy

    • Encircled France with stronger states to maintain stability.

    • Unified the Austrian Netherlands with Holland to form Kingdom of the United Netherlands.

    • Prussia secured military presence along the Rhine to counterbalance France.

  • The German Confederation

    • Replaced the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire; a loose union of 39 states intended to preserve Austrian dominance.

    • Many member states remained virtually sovereign.

  • Britain’s Emergence

    • After Congress, Britain emerged as the strongest power due to naval superiority and colonial expansion.

  • Metternich’s Conservatism

    • Resisted liberal reforms to maintain stability and prevent the empires' collapse, particularly the Habsburg Empire.

    • Metternich led through the Concert of Europe to preserve the conservative order.

  • The Era of Isms

    • 19th century called the 'Age of Isms'; included conservatism, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism.

    • Clash between monarchies and democratic ideas leading to revolutions, reforms, and wars.

Chapter 2: Liberal And Nationalist

  • Edmund Burke’s Conservative Views

    • Advocated for gradual reform; warned against radical changes.

    • Supported traditional institutions and hierarchies.

  • Joseph De Maestri’s Views

    • Believed only traditional authority could stabilize society.

    • Advocated for divine right monarchy and papal supremacy.

  • Conservative Repression

    • Between 1815-1849, conservatives used censorship and military action to stifle liberal and nationalist uprisings.

    • Metternich's Carlsbad decrees aimed to clamp down on liberal ideas in universities.

  • Nationalism in Austria

    • Ethnic groups called for autonomy; conservatives feared nationalist movements.

    • Universities became hotbeds for revolutionary thought.

  • German Confederation

    • Established after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed to preserve order against nationalism but ultimately failed to unify Germany.

    • Austria dominated the governing structure.

  • Prussia’s Centralized Authority

    • Run by the Junkers (landowning nobles); lack of political representation for common people.

  • Britain’s Conservative Government

    • Tory government faced backlash for policies like the Corn Laws and suspension of civil liberties leading to the Peterloo massacre.

  • Revolutionary Activity in France

    • King Louis XVIII's constitutional monarchy faced tensions leading to royalist violence in the White Terror.

Chapter 3: Major Social Reforms

  • Czar Nicholas I’s Repressive Rule

    • Turned Russia into a police state; censorship and secret police exercised control.

  • Intellectual Movements in Russia

    • Slavophiles vs. Westernizers: Traditional village culture versus modernization and reforms.

  • Influence of Liberal Economic Thoughts

    • John Locke's views on government based on social contract rather than divine right.

    • Promoted principles of individual freedoms, aiming to protect rights through written constitutions.

  • Liberalism and Industrialization

    • Shifted towards reforms to address challenges faced by working classes.

  • Utilitarianism

    • Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill's contributions focused on the greatest good for the greatest number.

    • Called for broader social reforms and protection against the tyranny of the majority.

Chapter 4: Liberal And Nationalist

  • Nationalism and Shared Identity

    • Strong cultural links motivated national independence movements.

  • Impact of the French Revolution

    • Shifted ideas from dynastic power to popular sovereignty and national self-determination.

  • Key Nationalist Figures

    • Johann Gottfried Herder: Every nation’s unique spirit; Fichte: German nationalism; Mazzini: Italian unification.

  • Failed Revolutions and Conservative Power

    • Revolts from 1815-1829 suppressed by conservatives; e.g., Greek independence received support, unlike movements in Spain.

  • July Revolution in France (1830)

    • Reaction against King Charles X led to Louis Philippe’s constitutional monarchy but favored the rich.

  • Italian Nationalism

    • Revolts inspired by Mazzini's politics met harsh repression from Austria.

  • German Revolutions

    • Inspired by French ideals; met with resistance despite initial gains.

  • Belgian Revolution (1830)

    • Successful rebellion against Dutch rule; led to recognition of Belgian independence.

Chapter 5: Sought Political Reforms

  • The Whigs and Middle Class Support

    • Grew alongside demands for political reform and addressing divisions amongst social classes.

    • 1832 Reform Act increased electorate and abolished rotten boroughs.

  • Labor Reforms

    • Factory Act of 1833 limited child labor; abolition of slavery in the British Empire marked social change.

  • Poor Laws and Social Reforms

    • Led to significant amendments addressing poverty and working conditions.

  • Radical Movements for Universal Suffrage

    • Chartist movement laid foundations for broader electoral rights.

Chapter 6: Liberal And Nationalist

  • Challenges to Established Order

    • Events in Europe spurred revolutions driven by liberalism and nationalism despite stern conservative pushback.

  • Significant Uprisings

    • In Hungary, calls for independence were met with unfortunate suppression, reinforcing conservative control.

  • Austrian Military Reaction

    • Crushed nationalistic aspirations in Czechoslovakia and Hungary.

  • Frankfurt Assembly

    • Created to unify Germany under constitutional rule but faced rejection from Frederick William IV.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

  • Cultural Shift Post-Revolutions

    • Marked transition from romanticism to realism and realpolitik, influencing later unification efforts in Germany and Italy.

    • Revolutions helped modernize politics, setting the groundwork for future liberal and nationalist movements.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Post-Napoleonic Era

  • After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna convened to restore a balance of power in Europe, aiming to stabilize a continent rife with revolutionary sentiments and nationalistic fervor that had emerged during the Napoleonic Wars.

  • The era was marked by significant struggles among states to achieve international stability as nationalism began to rise, leading to an uneasy coexistence of old monarchies and new national identities.

Concert of Europe

  • The Concert of Europe was a collective diplomatic arrangement established to maintain the status quo in Europe, characterized by conservative ideals and repression of revolutionary movements.

  • Clemens von Metternich, an Austrian diplomat and key architect of this system, focused on suppressing nationalistic and liberal revolutions, regaining control for conservatives who sought to stifle any movements that could disrupt the existing order.

Vienna Settlement Goals

  • The primary goals of the Vienna Settlement included legitimacy, compensation, and a balance of power. This involved:

    • Restoring deposed rulers, such as the Bourbons in France, to legitimate throne rule.

    • Redrawing territorial boundaries across Europe to prevent the dominance of any one state, particularly France, to ensure a balance of power that favored the collective security of Europe.

Principle of Legitimacy

  • This principle intended to reinstate ruling families that had been cast out by revolutions. Prominent examples included the Bourbons in France, and similar dynasties in Spain, Naples, and other parts of Europe.

  • The Papal States were restored to the Pope to reinforce moral authority and clerical governance.

Principle of Compensation

  • This principle aimed to reward states for sacrifices made against Napoleon, granting territorial gains to major powers:

    • Britain gained strategic territories, including Malta and Ceylon.

    • Austria acquired Lombardy and Venetia.

    • Russia expanded through Poland and Finland.

    • Prussia secured the Rhineland and parts of Saxony.

Balance of Power Strategy

  • The strategy encompassed encircling France with stronger neighboring states to ensure that it could not threaten its neighbors. Notable strategies included:

    • Unifying the Austrian Netherlands with Holland to create the Kingdom of the United Netherlands as a buffer against France.

    • Enhancing Prussia's military presence along the Rhine River to serve as a counterbalance against French aggression.

The German Confederation

  • The German Confederation was established, replacing the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire, comprising a loose union of 39 states. Its purpose was to preserve Austrian dominance, though many member states retained a degree of sovereignty that complicated unified governance.

Britain’s Emergence

  • After the Congress of Vienna, Britain emerged as the strongest European power, bolstered by its naval superiority and extensive colonial empire, allowing it to exert significant influence over global affairs.

Metternich’s Conservatism

  • Metternich staunchly resisted liberal reforms to sustain stability and prevent the collapse of empires, particularly the Habsburg Empire, which was central to Austrian leadership in Europe.

  • Leading through the Concert of Europe, Metternich endeavored to maintain the conservative order and suppress revolutionary ideologies.

The Era of Isms

  • The 19th century is often referred to as the 'Age of Isms,' during which various ideological movements like conservatism, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism emerged.

  • This period saw a clash between established monarchies and the rising tide of democratic ideals, which led to revolutions, reforms, and wars that reshaped the political landscape of Europe.