The Enlightenment and Rococo Art: Themes, Philosophers, and Revolutions
Defining the Enlightenment and its Core Themes
The Enlightenment is a period of cultural history stretching from approximately the to the . This era is characterized as a time that fundamentally underlies our present time in terms of its primary ideas. One of the central main ideas is individual freedom. This is the concept that each individual possesses the same rights as anyone else and has the inherent right to overthrow monarchy or tyranny if such systems are no longer serving the needs of the people. Another foundational theme is the dominance of science and reason over religion. In previous eras, religion provided the answers concerning the origin of the universe and natural phenomena. In the Enlightenment, the scientific method was ushered in, establishing reason as the primary way to acquire knowledge. Additionally, the Enlightenment served as a clear reaction against the decadence of the court, specifically the courts of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Decadence is defined as the lavish, over-the-top, and extravagant use of money. This reaction was manifested in the Rococo style, an art movement that used money to reflect values of leisure and escapism.
The Rococo Style: Aesthetics and Architecture
The term Rococo originates from the French word rocais, meaning shell. The subject matter of most Rococo art is the carefree aristocratic life, highlighting what money can provide in terms of free time and the pursuit of things unavailable to the non-elite classes. In terms of aesthetics, the style is dominated by serpentine lines and pastel colors. The brushstrokes are feathery and blur into one another, intentionally omitting sharp contrastive lines. The overarching theme of Rococo art is escapism, which serves as the opposite of realism by allowing viewers to escape the realities of the world. An example of Rococo architecture is the interior of the Benedictine Abbey in Bavaria, designed by the architect Johann Fischer. This interior is an example of early Rococo, characterized by an ornate lavishness where surfaces are encrusted with various shapes, the most dominant being the scallop shell. Notably, Rococo adornments were mostly constructed from wood and then painted white to mimic the appearance of alabaster, marble, or plaster. The influence of Rococo persists today, as seen in the interior of the Ohio Theater in Columbus. This setting is appropriate for viewing the ballet, symphony, or Broadway performances because it fosters a sense of escapism, making patrons feel as though they belong to a privileged elite class. The scallop shell, the symbol of Rococo, can be found above the drinking fountains at the Ohio Theater.
Prominent Rococo Artists: Watteau and Boucher
Antoine Watteau was a key Rococo artist, famous for the painting Departure from Scytheria. Scytheria is described as a mythological island containing a temple of Venus and a portal between the mortal world and the mythological world. The painting reinforces the theme that the elite are privileged and permitted to visit places, even those favored by the gods, that others cannot. The work utilizes a contrast between pastel blues and pinks and exhibits the feathery, blurry brushstrokes typical of the era. It features a mixture of mortal and immortal figures, including Cupids and a statue of Venus, underscoring the idea that aristocrats cross boundaries between mortality and immortality. This painting is categorized as a fete galant, which is defined as a happy picnic painting set outdoors where people are frolicking and having fun. Francois Boucher is another significant artist, known for Cupid a Captive. This painting focuses on a woman identified as Madame Pompadour, the mistress to King Louis XV. Pompadour was not merely a sexual figure but an advisor to the king, possessing great sense, grace, and intellect. Boucher was the artist she patronized, and he painted her in a flattering light, suggesting she was so beautiful she could entrance Cupid himself. Boucher also painted Earth, Vertumnus, and Pomona in the Columbus Museum of Art around the same time, portraying Madame Pompadour as Pomona, the goddess of gardens. A contemporary rendition of Madame Pompadour appeared on the television show Doctor Who.
Jean Henri Fragonard and the Narrative of The Swing
Jean Henri Fragonard is responsible for probably the most famous work of Rococo art, The Swing. Aesthetically, it contains all the hallmarks: pastel blues, pinks, serpentine lines, and fuzzy, feathery brushstrokes. Fragonard was successful because he understood that sex and sexual intrigue sold paintings. Works like The Swing were placed in the palaces of the wealthy to serve as entertainment during parties, where guests would talk about the "titillating" backstory. In the painting, a lady is being pushed on a swing by a priest, a member of the clergy intended to represent chastity and good sense. However, the lady's lover has made a secret deal with the priest to push her. The lover hides in the bushes and positions himself along a sight line so that when she is pushed high enough, he can look right up her dress. Adding to the titillation, the lady reveals an unslippered foot, which in Rococo terms was considered very provocative. A contemporary allusion to this specific painting can be found in the Disney movie Frozen.
Francis Bacon and the Scientific Method
While Francis Bacon was a Renaissance man rather than a figure associated strictly with the Enlightenment, his ideas provided the foundation for the elevation of science and reason. Bacon is considered the father of the scientific method as laid out in his book, The Novum Organum or New Method. His method involved inductive reasoning, which is the process of making specific observations with the senses and drawing generalizations from them. For instance, after seeing four white swans, one might conclude that all swans are white. Bacon also believed that human ideas were clouded by false notions he called idols. He identified four specific idols that still prevail today: 1. Idols of the Tribe: Deceptive notions founded in human nature, such as the tendency to accept what we prefer to be true. Examples include the persistent belief in trickle-down economics (the idea that tax breaks for the wealthy trickle down to everyone else) despite evidence to the contrary, or the belief that was a government conspiracy. Contemporary psychology notes that arguing with people holding these beliefs often makes them hold on tighter. 2. Idols of the Cave: Religious myopia, where one sees everything through a religious lens and refuses to challenge it. 3. Idols of the Marketplace: The use of "unfit words" or euphemisms to hide truth, such as using "collateral damage" instead of "civilian casualties," or "passed away" instead of "died." 4. Idols of the Theater: Political philosophies that go unchallenged, such as the divine right of kings or labeling anything the government does as socialism.
Philosophical Perspectives: Descartes and Kant
René Descartes advocated for the philosophical method of abstract reasoning, known as deductive reasoning. This involves starting with a general observation and moving to specific cases. Examples include predicting that students who text in class will get bad grades and then confirming it, or predicting that technology will use humanity as a tool and then observing digital device usage. Descartes is famous for the phrase Cogito ergo sum, meaning "I think, therefore I am." He was among the first to distinguish between the mind and the body, separating the psychic from the physical aspects of the brain. Immanuel Kant later addressed the problem arising from the dominance of reason, which led thinkers like David Hume to argue that we can only know things through experience and thus cannot have causality. Kant wanted to restore discussions on ethics, love, and right and wrong. He maintained the concept of a priori reason, meaning knowledge that is known prior to experience. Kant believed we have a built-in sense of morals that exists before birth. For example, one does not need to be taught the Commandments to know that stabbing someone for no reason is wrong. He also asserted that we have a built-in way of experiencing time as a necessary prior condition for human experience.
The Social Contract: Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau
John Locke is considered the founder of the Enlightenment. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he introduced the concept of the tabula rasa, or the "blank slate." He argued that we are all equal at birth and that experience writes our script, rather than royal lineage or divine right. In his work Of Civil Government, Locke asserted that government must rest on the "consent of the governed" and that people have the right to overthrow tyranny. This inspired the American and French Revolutions. Thomas Hobbes offered a contrasting view in Leviathan, suggesting individuals should surrender freedom to an absolute ruler because people are essentially greedy and warlike. Without authoritarian leadership, Hobbes argued that life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Jean Jacques Rousseau provided a different perspective in The Social Contract, promoting the concept of the "noble savage." He argued that humans are born free but society puts them in artificial "chains." Rousseau believed the "body politic" or the people should have absolute power through a "general will" rather than an authoritarian leader. In his book Emile, he advocated for progressive education through hands-on experience and also promoted breastfeeding and vegetarianism.
Economics and Revolution
Adam Smith is the father of Laissez-faire capitalism, as outlined in The Wealth of Nations. He argued that economics is built around private property and that the government's role should be limited to providing law and order to protect the "haves" from the "have-nots." Smith believed the "invisible hand" of the market would ensure quality lives because people would use reason to make wise choices, causing defective products or bad businesses to fail naturally. These various Enlightenment ideas eventually fomented revolution. The American Revolution involved the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of The United States in . This inspired the French Revolution, which began on with the storming of the Bastille, a state prison and gunpowder depot. King Louis XVI had plummeted France into debt by giving monetary and weapons aid to the United States. Furthermore, royal extravagance was extreme; the King isolated himself in Versailles and spent of the total national budget. The Third Estate, or middle class, paid all the taxes while the royalty paid nothing. The revolution led to declarations of individual liberty and equal rights for women.