The Importance and Process of Scientific Research
Why is Research Important?
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, students should be able to:
Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior.
Discuss how scientific research guides public policy.
Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions.
The Indispensable Role of Scientific Research
Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world.
Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people's authority, and blind luck.
Historical Examples of Misconceptions (when failing to recognize the need for evidence):
Belief that the sun revolved around a flat earth.
The notion that the earth's continents did not move.
The idea that mental illness was caused by possession (Figure PR.2), leading to practices like trephination (making a hole in the skull to allow evil spirits to leave the body, thus curing mental illness and other disorders).
It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.
Focus of Psychologists
The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them.
Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior.
In contrast to other methods people use (like intuition and personal experience), the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim.
Empirical Knowledge: Scientific knowledge is empirical, meaning it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.
Challenges in Understanding Behavior
While behavior is observable (e.g., seeing someone cry), the mind is not.
The reason for behavior is often difficult to determine (e.g., is crying due to sadness, pain, or happiness?).
Sometimes, simply asking "Why are you crying?" yields the reason.
However, there are situations where individuals are uncomfortable, unwilling to answer honestly, or incapable of answering (e.g., infants wouldn't be able to explain their crying).
In such circumstances, psychologists must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior.
Navigating Research Information and Reaching Scientific Consensus
It can be difficult to determine which theories are accepted by the scientific community, especially in broad fields like psychology.
A simple internet search on a research topic might yield contradictory studies, indicating the scientific community is in the process of reaching a consensus.
Example: Impact of Technology in Educational Settings
The explosion in technology use has led researchers to question its effects.
One study investigating a smartphone app for surgery residents found it increased student engagement and raised test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015).
Conversely, another study found that technology use in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009).
A clear consensus on technology's effects on knowledge acquisition, study skills, and mental health will not emerge until sufficient research has been conducted.
Critical Thinking and Healthy Skepticism:
In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter.
When someone makes a claim, we should examine it from several perspectives:
What is the expertise of the person making the claim?
What might they gain if the claim is valid?
Does the claim seem justified given the evidence?
What do other researchers think of the claim?
This is especially important with advertising campaigns and internet claims based on alleged "scientific evidence," which may only reflect the beliefs of a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.
Research Guides Public Policy
Being informed consumers of information is vital because decisions based on this information have significant consequences, particularly in politics and public policy.
Example: Funding Early Intervention Programs
Imagine being elected as Premier and needing to decide on funding for early intervention programs for disadvantaged children (e.g., low-income, special needs).
These programs aim to maximize children's development and position them for success (Blann, 2005).
To be a good steward of taxpayer money, a Premier would need to ensure these programs are effective before investing further.
Psychologists and other scientists have conducted extensive research generally finding these programs effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011).
While not all programs are equally effective, and short-term effects may be more pronounced, many produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011).
Examining research on which programs are most effective, what characteristics make them effective, and which promote the best outcomes equips policymakers to make informed decisions.
Research in Personal Decisions
Individuals also benefit from using research to guide personal decisions in their lives.
Examples:
A close friend diagnosed with breast cancer: Research helps identify the most successful treatment options with the fewest side effects.
A young relative diagnosed with autism: Research guides choices for the most effective interventions.
In such cases, one would likely consult a doctor and critically review existing research to be as informed as possible.
Facts vs. Opinions
Research helps differentiate between facts and opinions.
Facts: Observable realities.
Opinions: Personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate.
In the scientific community, facts can only be established using evidence collected through empirical research.
The Process of Scientific Research
The Scientific Method: A Circular Process
Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method.
It is a circular process: ideas (theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (empirical observations), and those observations lead to more ideas that are then tested.
Types of Reasoning:
Deductive Reasoning: Ideas are tested in the real world.
Inductive Reasoning: Real-world observations lead to new ideas.
These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects (Figure PR.3).
Deductive Reasoning
Begins with a generalization (hypothesis) that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world.
If the hypothesis is supported, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct.
Example:
Hypothesis: All living things require energy to survive.
Observation: Ducks are living things.
Logical Conclusion: Therefore, ducks require energy to survive.
An incorrect hypothesis, however, may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion (e.g., "All ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see.").
Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses, by designing studies based on the generalization.
Inductive Reasoning
Moves in the opposite direction of deductive reasoning.
Uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations.
Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based.
Example:
Observation: Your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees.
Generalization (Inductive Reasoning): Therefore, all fruit must grow on trees.
This generalization is incorrect due to the existence of fruits like strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi.
Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning.
Science intrinsically involves both deductive and inductive processes.
Examples of Research Emphasizing Each:
Case Studies: Heavily weighted on empirical observations, thus closely associated with inductive processes (researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns).
Experimental Research: Puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.
Theories and Hypotheses
Theory: A well-developed set of ideas that proposes an explanation for observed phenomena.
Theories are repeatedly checked against the world but are generally too complex to be tested all at once.
Instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea (from a theory) is correct.
Often worded as an "if-then" statement (e.g., "if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test").
The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world.
As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the results of these tests (Figure PR.4).
Falsifiability
A scientific hypothesis must also be falsifiable, meaning it is capable of being shown to be incorrect.
Example: Sigmund Freud's Theories
Freud had many interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors (Figure PR.5).
A major criticism of Freud's theories is that many, like the existence of the id, ego, and superego, are not falsifiable because it's impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove them.
Despite this, Freud's theories are widely taught in introductory psychology due to their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, remaining the root of many modern forms of therapy.
Scientific research's dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information it produces.
Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.