Unit 4
1. CLAUSE
A clause is a linguistic constructional unit (a combination of lexical ítems) that expresses a
relation tracked through time. A relation implies that we need some time.
Verbs express temporal relations (giving, putting), which implies that verbs need other
entities to fulfil their meaning, they cannot be in isolation, that is the related entities or verbal
arguments. Therefore, verbs are conceptually dependent on these arguments. For example:
“The child put the toy in the box”. The semantics of the clause, as a single frame or Gestalt,
includes:
-
Temporal relation (=verb): put. The temporal relation is specified by the
process type or temporal relation; it takes some time. (Aktionsart)
-
Necessary participants in the relation (=arguments): child, toy, box)
Arguments are specified by Semantic Roles.
-
Circumstances: are not strictly necessary in the clause, but we use them in
the clause.
2. PROCESS TYPES
1. Stative processes indicate states. There is no energy input and no change in the
participants. A situation exists or persists. This kind of verb or process expresses
just a stative situation. Examples:
a. the book is boring (attribution)
b. The picture hangs above the sofa (spatial relation)
c. Your cat is the one that stole the liver (identification)
d. I like that film (cognitive/mental state)
2. Dynamic processes (events): Something happens, there is energy input. There are 2 kind of processes:
a. Change-of-state processes (telic): the world comes to be in a different state as a consequence of
a change of state.
i. The farmer shot the rabbit (dead rabbit)
ii. I gave Peter the book (different possessor)
iii. The cook baked a cake (dough changes into a cake)
b. Non-telic dynamic processes: There is no change of state, in spite of an energy input, either
durative or punctual. The energy is not enough to change the state.
i. The telephone rang
ii. The athlete ran fast (activity)
iii. I watched the film (cognitive activity)
3. Causative (or complex) processes: A process is made up of two or more processes that stand in a causative
relation. The second one is a change-of-state process. Both processes are expressed by one single verb.
o They elected him president → Through election they cause him to become presidentThe child broke the vase → Through action the child causes the vase to become broken
o His girlfriend taught him Spanish → His girlfriend causes him to learn Spanish through teaching.
3. PARTICIPANTS
Participants are inherent to the semantic structure of the verb.
- Circumstances are optional modifiers (time, place, manner, cause and reason).
They can be omitted without loss of grammaticality and without change to the
character of the designated process. Example: The guests arrived in a taxi.
- Non-nominal participants: Location, manner, state, etc. Examples: The child put his
things away (Location) // You look tired (state). // You look as if you’ve been up all
night (manner).
4. SEMANTIC ROLES
Agent: an animate entity that provides the input energy to the process designated by the
verb: John opened the door.
Patient (or undergoer): entity affected by the process (change of state or location): The child
put her toys away.
Instrument: typically an inanimate entity used by the agent to affect the Patient: John opened
the door with a key.
Locative roles: Place, Source, Goal, Path: I moved the books from the table onto the
bookshelf.
Experiencer: An animate entity which is the locus of a cognitive activity or a cognitive stat:
The girl heard a noise.
Stimulus: An entity that causes a cognitive activity or a cognitive state: I heard the noise.
Zero or positioner: A participant that merely exists or exhibits a property, but which does
not interact with another entity: The book cost $50 // The telephone rang.
Beneficiary: a participant gets the benefit of the process expressed by the verb: My friend
did me a favour.
5. THE ACTION CHAIN MODEL: AGENT→ INSTRUMENT → PATIENT
Dynamic interactions involving the transfer of energy. If an agent appears, it will be the
subject.
- The woman opened the door with the key
- The key opened the door
- The door opened
Other roles in subject position acquire agent-like properties.
- The key easily opened the door.
- The key just will not open the door
- The door refuses to open
Cognitive processes typically involve Stimulus and Experiencer.
Cognitive states / Cognitive dynamic processes (agentive): I saw the movie / I watched the
movie. Zero role → Stimulus-verb-Experiencer: That music is boring // That music bores me.
6.
CLAUSE CONSTRUCTIONS
Intransitive: A situation involves only one participant.
- The building collapsed (patient)
- The guests departed (mover)
- The child slept (experiencer)
Transitive: Prototypically, there is a transfer of energy from an agent to a patient. A
prototypical transitive clause can also be made passive.
- The farmer killed the rabbit VS the rabbit was killed by the farmer
Double-object: Three participants are necessary. The subject is an agent.
- I will mail you the report (you will be mailed the report )
Motion event: An agent-mover and a locative goal are required.
- Lindbergh flew across the Atlantic
Caused motion: An agent causes a patient-mover to reach a locative goal.
- The child put the toy in the box
- The dogs scared the guests out of the house
7.
COMPLEMENTATION
Complement clause: a clause which is embedded inside another clause, and which
functions as a participant within it.
- Plain infinitive clause: I saw them break into the house.
- To-infinitive clause: I advise you to wait a while.
- -ing clause: I avoided meeting them.
- That clause: I hope (that) he will get it.
- Embedded questions: I wonder what we should do.
- To-infinitive with “for” clause: I would hate for you to be late.
- Dummy-it clause: I would hate it for you to be late.
- Preposition clause: I look forward to meeting you.