6.3

Indigenous Responses to State Expansion

Túpac Amaru II's Statement

  • Túpac Amaru II, around 1780, expressed the grievances of indigenous peoples against European-born crown officials.

  • He articulated justified outcries that were not addressed by the royal courts.

Essential Question

  • How and why did internal and external factors influence state building between 1750 and 1900?

Nationalist Movements in Response to European Imperialism

  • Nationalist movements emerged in South America, Africa, and Asia as a response to European imperialism.

  • Leaders of these movements often had European-style educations and were influenced by Enlightenment ideals such as:

    • Natural rights

    • Sovereignty

    • Nationalism

  • Some leaders held official positions in the colonial governance structures and utilized their education to drive out European colonizers in the 20th century.

  • Anti-imperial resistance resulted in the formation of new states.

Nationalist Movements in the Balkans

  • The Ottoman Empire, at its peak, controlled vast territories in Europe but began losing grip during the early 19th century.

  • The French Revolution inspired ethnic nationalism among Balkan peoples seeking independence.

  • Key milestones included:

    • Serbia gaining independence in 1815

    • Greece achieving independence in 1832.

  • Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Bulgaria rebelled against Ottoman rule.

  • The Russo-Turkish War (1877) was pivotal as Serbia and Russia aided rebellion forces.

  • The Treaty of Berlin (1878) resulted in the liberation of Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro, but placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control.

Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas

North America

  • The British Proclamation of 1763 reserved lands for Native Americans following their victory in the French and Indian War, recognizing indigenous territorial rights.

  • Following independence, U.S. citizens displaced Native Americans from lands like the Ohio and Illinois river valleys.

Cherokee Nation

  • Post-1800, the Cherokee assimilated to European settler culture, adopting practices of farming, weaving, and architecture.

  • Developed a syllabic alphabet; nearly all tribe members became literate.

  • Launched the "Cherokee Phoenix," the first Native American newspaper.

  • The tribe adopted a constitution modeled after the U.S. Constitution.

  • Despite efforts of assimilation, they were displaced during the gold rush of 1829 and forced relocation through the Indian Removal Act of 1830.

Ghost Dance

  • The Ghost Dance emerged among Northern Paiute Indians around 1869, predicting the return of the dead to restore Native lands and traditions.

  • This belief system rapidly spread throughout indigenous populations, reaching the Sioux by 1890 alongside their revolts.

  • The movement ended tragically with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, marking the conclusion of the Indian Wars.

Túpac Amaru II

  • Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, Túpac Amaru II was a cacique in southern Peru and a descendant of the Inca rulers.

  • He was formally educated by Jesuits but embraced his Inca heritage.

  • Arrested and executed a colonial administrator in 1780, triggering a widespread revolt supported by criollos.

  • The revolt spread to southern Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina but ultimately failed; Túpac Amaru II was captured and executed in Cuzco after witnessing his family's execution.

French Intervention in Mexico

  • In 1863, Mexican conservatives colluded with Napoleon III of France to oust President Benito Juárez.

    • France sought to collect debts and expand its influence through the installation of Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico (coronation on June 10, 1864).

  • After several years of conflict, Juárez’s forces expelled the French and executed Maximilian on June 19, 1867, restoring Juárez to power.

South Asian Movements

Sepoy Mutiny (Indian Rebellion of 1857)

  • Sepoys were Indian soldiers in British service, largely made up of Hindus and Muslims.

  • The British introduced rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat in 1857, offending both communities.

  • The uprising spread across northern India; the British suppressed it brutally, executing thousands.

  • The rebellion marked the rise of Indian nationalism and led to the dissolution of the Mughal Empire, bringing direct British governance through the Raj until Indian independence in 1947.

  • In 1885, British-educated Indians established the Indian National Congress to demand self-rule, though its early meetings were dominated by Hindus, creating suspicion among Indian Muslims.

Southeast Asian Resistance

  • In the 1880s, Siam (Thailand) was the only independent state in Southeast Asia, all others were under colonial rule.

Vietnam

  • French colonial rule faced resistance from the Vietnamese, notably as Emperor Ham Nghi, whose advisors criticized French control.

  • After Ham Nghi was captured and exiled, the resistance persisted under Phan Dinh Phung until 1895.

Philippine Resistance

  • The Spanish controlled the Philippines, but education was lacking until 1863, leading wealthy Filipinos to study in Europe.

  • José Rizal founded the Liga Filipina in 1892 to promote reform; his execution by the Spanish enraged Filipinos, fueling a series of revolts in 1896.

  • The Spanish-American War in 1898 led to U.S. victory and the transfer of the Philippines from Spain to U.S. control, leading to further conflict known as the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) with an estimated 20,000 Filipino soldiers and over 200,000 civilians killed.

Resistance in Australia and New Zealand

Australia

  • The Aboriginal people inhabited Australia for approximately 50,000 years, cultivating a rich cultural history.

  • British colonization began in 1788 with convicts and soldiers arriving without recognizing indigenous land rights, resulting in significant violence against Aboriginal populations.

New Zealand

  • The Maori arrived from Polynesia in the 14th century and faced colonization under the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, which promised to protect their property rights.

  • Tensions erupted as British settlers increased, leading to the Maori Wars; this period involved attempts by the Maori to resist land sales and protect their sovereignty, which ultimately failed.

African Resistance to Imperialism

  • Organized resistance emerged in African regions later than in India due to different colonial administration structures.

  • By World War I, educated Africans began to establish Pan-Africanism.

Sokoto Caliphate

  • Established in West Africa in 1804 by Usman dan Fodio, aimed at purifying Islam among Hausa tribes while opposing British suppression of the slave trade.

  • It became a significant African empire, eventually annexed by the British in 1903.

South Africa

  • British conflicts with indigenous Xhosa people and the Zulu nation highlighted resistance to colonization and resulted in numerous wars.

  • Significant events include the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement (1856-57) and the Anglo-Zulu War (1879).

Samory Touré's War

  • Samory Touré led efforts in West Africa against French annexation from 1883, culminating in capture by the French in 1898.

Mahdist Revolt

  • Muhammad Ahmad declared himself Mahdi in 1881, forming an army against British-Egyptian rule, capturing key regions yet ultimately succumbing to British forces by 1898 after his death.

Yaa Asantewaa War

  • This final military confrontation in the Asante Empire (Ghana) began in 1900 in response to British demands for the Golden Stool, symbolizing Asante unity, led by warrior queen Yaa Asantewaa, resulting in significant casualties and eventual British victory.

Key Terms by Theme

Government: Rebel Leaders

  • Túpac Amaru II

  • José Rizal

  • Usman dan Fodio

  • Samory Touré

  • Muhammad Ahmad

  • Yaa Asantewaa

Government: States

  • Balkan Peninsula

  • Vietnam

  • Philippines

Government: Wars and Rebellions

  • Ghost Dance

  • Indian Rebellion of 1857

  • Philippine Revolution

  • Spanish-American War

  • Philippine-American War

  • Maori Wars

  • Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement

  • Anglo-Zulu War

Government: Treaties

  • Sokoto Caliphate

  • Treaty of Paris

  • Sudan

  • Asante Empire

  • Treaty of Waitangi

Government: Relations with Indigenous Peoples

  • Proclamation of 1763

  • Indian Removal Act

Government: Organizations

  • Indian National Congress

Culture: Peoples

  • Cherokee Nation

  • Aboriginal

  • Maori

  • Xhosa

  • Zulu

Culture: Ideas

  • Mahdi

  • Pan-Africanism

Society: British in India

  • Sepoys

  • Raj