Period 1 Overview

A series of conflicts between England and France that lasted from 1337 to 1453, largely over territorial disputes and claims to the French throne.
Resulted in significant territorial and national changes, including the rise of national identity in both nations and the decline of feudalism as monarchs sought to increase their power.

A devastating plague that struck Europe from 1347 to 1351, causing massive population declines, with estimates of one-third to one-half of Europe's population succumbing to the disease.
Impacted social, economic, and cultural structures by leading to labor shortages, which increased wages for peasants and weakened the traditional feudal system.
Prompted changes in religious practices and attitudes, as people questioned the Church's authority amid the crisis.

Avignon Papacy: A period (1309-1377) where the papacy resided in Avignon, France, leading to a loss of prestige and influence in Rome and causing conflict between different factions within the Church.
Great Schism: A split in the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417, with multiple claimants to the papacy causing further division and confusion among the faithful, which undermined the Church's authority and set the stage for later reforms.

The invention by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century revolutionized the spread of information and literacy by making books affordable and accessible, leading to increased rates of literacy and education across Europe.

Humanism: A movement emphasizing the study of classical texts and human potential, promoting the value of human beings and focusing on education, ethics, and public service.
Secularism: A shift towards the separation of religious orientation in life and government, allowing for advancements in science, philosophy, and the arts without direct religious oversight.
Individualism: An emphasis on personal achievement and expression, fostering creativity and innovation that became hallmarks of the Renaissance era.

Italian Renaissance: Characterized by a focus on classical themes, humanistic ideas, and patronage from wealthy families, leading to remarkable achievements in art, literature, and architecture.
Northern Renaissance: Emphasized religious themes, detailed realism in art, and reflected social criticism, with notable figures such as Albrecht Dürer and Jan van Eyck.

Themes: Renaissance art showcased the use of perspective, classical subjects, and naturalism, which transformed visual representation.
High Renaissance: The peak of art in the late 15th century marked by masterpieces from artists like Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa, The Last Supper) and Michelangelo (David, Sistine Chapel).
Mannerism: An artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance characterized by exaggerated proportions, complex compositions, and a departure from the harmony and balance typical of earlier works.

The search for new trade routes leading to Asia was driven by European desires for spices, silk, and other luxury goods, as well as the quest for expansion and wealth.
Significant advances in navigation (e.g., magnetic compass, astrolabe) and shipbuilding (caravels) facilitated longer sea voyages and exploration.

Both nations emerged as leaders in exploration; figures like Prince Henry the Navigator established schools of navigation, while Columbus's voyage in 1492 opened the Americas to European exploration and colonization.

The Columbian Exchange involved the transfer of crops (like potatoes and corn), animals (horses and cattle), and diseases (smallpox and measles) between the New World and Europe, drastically altering diets and populations.
The establishment of the transatlantic slave trade contributed to economic changes in Europe and the Americas, creating a plantation economy in the New World based on enslaved labor.

Astronomy: Shift from geocentric (Earth-centered) to heliocentric (Sun-centered) models of the universe, with groundbreaking contributions from Copernicus (theory), Kepler (laws of planetary motion), and Galileo (telescope, observational evidence).
Physics: Scientific advancements spurred by Isaac Newton's laws of motion and his development of calculus, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics.
Biology and Anatomy: Pioneers like Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey transformed understanding of human anatomy and the circulatory system, emphasizing empirical observation and dissection.
Persistence of Alchemy: Traditional practices of alchemy coexisted with emerging scientific methods, illustrating the transition between medieval and modern understandings of nature and matter.

The development of centralized governments occurred as monarchs sought to consolidate power, resulting in the decline of noble and clerical powers, which allowed for the emergence of modern nation-states.

Establishment of efficient administrative systems and taxation policies, enabling monarchs to maintain large standing armies and exert control over their territories.

Successful examples of new monarchs include the consolidation of power in Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella, France under Louis XI, and England with the Tudor dynasty.
In contrast, the Holy Roman Empire and Eastern Europe faced significant challenges in centralization due to diverse populations and strong regional nobility.

Widespread corruption in the Church arose from practices such as the sale of indulgences, which led to discontent among the clergy and laity alike.
Key figures such as Martin Luther catalyzed reform through his 95 Theses, which challenged Church practices and emphasized justification by faith.

The emergence of various Protestant denominations, including Anglicanism and Calvinism, fundamentally altered the religious landscape of Europe.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation was a response led by the Council of Trent (1545-1563) that sought to reform church practices, reaffirm core Catholic doctrines, and counter the spread of Protestantism.

French Wars of Religion: A series of conflicts (1562-1598) primarily between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants), notable figures include Henry IV, who ultimately sought to unify France with the Edict of Nantes.
Thirty Years War: A complex conflict (1618-1648) driven by both religious (Catholic vs. Protestant) and political motivations, leading to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which established a new balance of power and recognized the principle of state sovereignty in Europe.

The wars resulted in the redrawing of political boundaries and significant changes in power dynamics, with the decline of Spain and the rise of France as a dominant European power, as well as increased fragmentation within the Holy Roman Empire.
Additionally, the wars led to greater tolerance and the recognition of different denominations within the broader Christian faith, shaping future religious tolerance and pluralism in Europe.