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Systematic Biology (Plants)

  • LEC - 60%

  • Term/Final Exams – 30%

  • Quizzes – 20%

  • Journal Critique/Projects/Assignments – 10%

Plant Collection and Specimen Preparation

  • Fundamental aspects of study, training and research in plant systematics

  • Herbarium specimens are permanent records of plant species at a particular place and time.

Plant Collection

  • Collect entire, vigorously growing typical specimens.

  • Avoid insect-damaged specimens.

  • Collect underground parts (bulbs, rhizomes, tubers) of herbaceous perennials.

  • Collect specimens with flowers, fruits, and seeds.

  • For grasses, herbs, and small annuals, collect the whole plant including underground parts.

  • For trees and shrubs, obtain mature healthy branches with leaves, flowers, and fruits intact.

  • Collect three to four samples per plant/plant colony.

  • Assign a collection number for each plant.

  • Record information about the plant (locality, habitat, description, etc.) in a field notebook.

  • Specimens larger than a single sheet should be divided and pressed on a series of sheets.

  • Collect plants with leaves intact.

  • Collect bark and wood samples of woody plants.

  • Collect plant samples in the afternoon, except when rainy

  • Put tagged specimens in plastic bags, then drain them in alcohol before pressing.

  • Never collect the only plant of a species in a locality.

Field Equipment and Supplies

  • Field Press: Hardwood, metal or strong plywood frames of 12 by 18 inch

  • Driers or Blotters: Heavy blotting papers or moisture-absorbing materials of 11 by 16 inch

  • Straps or Ropes: Strong web straps of about 4-5 feet length to tighten the press

  • Corrugate Ventilators: Sheets of corrugated cardboard of 12 by 18 inch between driers; Provide space for air passage to remove moisture

  • Field Notebook: Used to record date, place, locality, habitat, elevation, local name, collector number.

  • Digging and Clipping Tools: Trowel, digger, hammer, pruning shears, garden clippers, geological pick, heavy sheath knife

  • String Tags: Waterproof material for labeling plants not immediately pressed

  • Vasculum: Container made of tin or aluminum to preserve freshness

  • Collecting Bags: Plastic bags for fresh specimens

  • Collection Bottles: Glass or plastic bottles with leakproof screw caps for small material in liquid preservatives

  • Liquid Preservatives: Formalin-acetic acid-alcohol (FAA) for anatomy materials; Chloroform for cytology materials

  • Hand Lens: 5x or 10x lens

  • Waxed Paper: For pressing viscid or weak plants

  • Cardboard Storage Boxes: To store dry materia;ls

  • Maps: For determining localities for particular species

  • Color Charts: Use in determining the actual color of the parts (flower, leaves) in the field itself

  • Camera: Taking of photographs in the field

  • Others: Compass, thermometer, seed envelopes, insect repellent, psychrometer

Organization of The Field Press

  • Hardwood or plywood press

  • Corrugate ventilator

  • Drier or blotter

  • 10 sheets of torn newspapers (each sheet will contain one specimen)

How to Press Plant Specimens?

  • Press specimens as soon as possible

  • Place specimen carefully on a pressing sheet

  • Remove extra leaves or branches if necessary

  • Plants too large may be bent into a V, N, or M figure. Specimens should not protrude from the fold of the paper

  • Expose some upper and lower surfaces of leaves

  • Spread out flowers or inflorescence thoroughly

  • A few flowers can be cut longitudinally and pressed, if possible

  • Each sheet should contain a collector’s number which refers to the notes in the field notebook

  • Place specimens in between driers or blotters

  • Place all specimens for pressing so that the bundle is of uniform thickness

  • Bind the press tightly with ropes or straps to prevent wrinkling

Drying of Specimens

  • Dry specimens as rapidly as possible.

  • Place the press in the sun

  • After 24 hours, open the press and place specimens in fresh blotters.

  • Rearrange plant parts at this time

  • Bind the press tightly again with fresh blotters

  • Dry wet blotters in the sun for reuse

  • Change wet blotters or driers daily for 3-4 days, until specimens are completely dried

  • The press becomes loose when the plants are completely dried

  • Artificial heat may be used for drying, but never use an oven

  • In humid regions, use a drier

Drier

  • Wooden box (3 ft in length and 18 inches in breadth made up of 1/10 inch thick boards)

  • Five light bulbs of 60 watts are fitted inside for heat

  • Small openings are made of the bottom for air entry

  • A press containing 100 specimens can be dried in 8-12 hours

Mounting of Specimens

  • Attach a dry specimen to a mounting paper or herbarium sheet, and affix a label at the lower right corner.

  • Herbarium sheet size: 28.75 x 41.25 cm (11.5 x 16.5 inch)

  • Before mounting, dip dry specimens in saturated solution of mercuric chloride in ethyl alcohol to prevent infection.

Poisoning

  • 12.15 grams mercuric chloride, 5.10 grams of phenol crystal, 1.0 liter of denatured alcohol (CAUTION: HIGHLY CORROSIVE AND POISONOUS CHEMICALS)

  • Use only denatured alcohol or lauryl pentachlorophenate

Mounting of Specimens

  • Apply glue or paste (Elmer’s glue) to the back of the specimens

  • Place loose parts (seeds, fruits) in a paper packet and paste on the herbarium sheet

Labeling of Specimens

  • Size: 6.5 X 10.5 cm, pasted on the lower right side of a herbarium sheet

  • High rag quality paper used

Information on labels:

  • A. Heading – institution

  • B. Family name

  • C. Local or vernacular name

  • D. Scientific name – genus, species along with authority

  • E. Locality – place of collection

  • F. Habitat – vegetation type

  • G. Collector

  • H. Determined by – the one who authenticated the identification

  • I. Collection number – starting with 1 and continuing throughout the lifetime of the collector

  • J. Additional Information (color of leaves & flowers, associated plants, economic uses etc.)

Labels

  • Field Label: Upper left hand corner, includes common/vernacular name; scientific name; date; locality; habitat; important plant notes

  • Herbarium Label: Lower right hand corner, includes herbarium no., family name, scientific name, collector, determined by, collector number

Fluid Preservation

  • Fleshy fruits, large flowers, and other botanical specimens are stored in fluid preservation by immersing in liquid in a labeled bottle.

Liquid Preservatives

  • FAA1 (formalin aceto-alcohol): 50 parts 95% ethyl alcohol + 40 parts distilled water + 5 parts glacial acetic acid + 5 parts 38% formalin

  • FAA2: 90 parts 70% ethyl alcohol + 5 parts 38% formalin + 5 parts glacial acetic acid

What is a Plant?

  • Organisms that perform photosynthesis, possess cell walls, spores, and sedentary behavior

  • Land plants include trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, and mosses.

The Evolution of Life

  • Archaea and Bacteria: small, mostly unicellular organisms with circular DNA, replicate by fission, and lack membrane-bound organelles.

  • Eukaryotes: unicellular or multicellular organisms with linear DNA, replicate by mitotic and meiotic division, and possess membrane-bound organelles.

Land Plants Green Plants (Chlorobionta)

  • Characterized by unique chloroplasts with specific pigments, thylakoid structures, and storage compounds.

  • Comprise aquatic green algae and land-dwelling embryophytes (Embryophyta).

Land Plants (Embryophyta):

  • Protective outer cuticle against desiccation

  • Specialized reproductive organs (gametangia) with sterile cell layers

  • A life cycle with an intercalated diploid phase and an embryo stage.

Systematics

  • Science including traditional taxonomy (description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms), reconstructing phylogeny or evolutionary history

  • Founded on evolution, major premise being that there is one phylogeny of life.

Evolution

  • Change since the origin of the universe (15 billion years ago).

  • Biological evolution: descent with modification (Charles Darwin).

Mechanism of Evolution

  • Genetic Drift: Frequency of traits changes in population due to chance events (random change).

  • Natural Selection: Traits that improve survival or reproduction accumulate in the population (adaptive change).

Taxonomy

  • Taxa (taxon) – group of organisms

  • Description

  • Identification

  • Nomenclature

  • Classification

Description

  • Assign features to a taxon

  • Features are called characters

  • Two or more forms of a character are character states

  • Example:

    • CHARACTER: PETAL COLOR

    • CHARACTER STATE: Yellow and Blue

Plant Identification

  • Basic process of classification

  • Direct comparison of an unknown specimen with the already classified, circumscribed and named taxa

Determination of similarities or differences:

  • Direct comparison of the features of a specimen in hand with those in keys in order to arrive at a name

  • Assignment of an unidentified taxon to the correct class in an established system of classification

Plant Identification Includes the use of keys

  • computer-based methods

  • polyclave-type devices

Characters Considered Before Plant Identification:

  • Herbaceous or woody, and annual or perennial nature.

  • Leaf type, phyllotaxy and venation

  • Stipule presence/absence and type.

  • Milky or colored sap presence.

  • Distribution and kinds of surface coverings (hairs, trichomes, spines).

  • Observe the flowers and name its parts

  • Count the number of sepals and petals and also their arrangement

  • Note whether perianth is present in one series, more series or absent

  • Note whether the sepals and petals are separate or fused

  • Note whether pappus (Asteraceae) or epicalyx (Malvaceae) are structures are present

  • Note whether a nectar-secreting disc is present in the flowers (Rutaceae)

  • Determine whether the flowers are actinomorphic or zygomorphic

  • Number and attachment of stamens; any fusion of anthers or filaments

  • Stamens –antipetalous, alternipetalous, or obdiplostemonous

  • Count the number of pistils, styles and stigmas of the gynoecium

  • Cut the transverse section of the ovary, count the number of locules, number of ovules per locule and also observe the placentation

  • Longitudinal section of flower – position of the ovary and fusion of the perianth

  • Determine the number of carpels

  • After carefully examining all the above characters, the next step in identification is KEYING

Identification with Keys

  • KEY: artificial arrangement providing a choice between contradictory statements.

  • COUPLET: a single pair of contradictory statements in a key.

  • LEAD: each statement of a couplet.

Leads are usually the best contrasting characters

  • Characters following the lead are called secondary key characters

  • Keys: Punched cards keys and Dichotomous keys

Punched Cards Keys

  • Cards with names of all taxa (species, genera, or families).

  • One corner of each card has a character and number.

  • Taxa showing character are perforated in front of their names.

  • Taxa lacking character are without perforation.

  • Number of cards and characters are the same

  • For identifying a plant, select cards showing the plant's characters.

  • Combination of characters will allow only one perforation.

  • Plant is referred to the family on that card.

Dichotomous Keys

  • Pairs of contrasting characters or couplets, each statement of which is a lead

  • Both leads are numbered, and begin with the same word as much as possible.

Types of Dichotomous Keys:

  • INDENTED OR YOKED KEY: each couplet is indented a fixed distance from the left margin.

  • BRACKET OR PARALLEL KEY: couplets are next to each other in consecutive lines.

Some Unconventional Identification Methods

  • POLYCLAVE IDENTIFICATION: choice of several characteristics; multi-entry, order-free key in several formats.

  • User chooses any character, in any order or sequence.

  • Diagnostic key—cards are utilized.

  • Computer-stored multientry key.

  • Printed table—gives status of different taxa and characters.

Computerized Identification

  • Machines planned only for the evaluation of a computer programme or algorithm

  • An algorithm is a series of logical steps or instructions by which an identification can be made

Four Major Approaches:

  • Computer-constructed keys

  • Computer-stored dichotomous keys

  • Automated pattern-recognition systems

  • Simultaneous character-set method

Other Identification Methods:

  • Chromatography

  • Spectroscopy

  • Molecular studies

  • CHROMATOGRAPHY: used to monitor reaction progress and identify compounds.

  • SPECTROMETRY: emerging method for characterizing proteins.

  • MOLECULAR SYSTEMATICS: identifying genes (DNA).

Plant Nomenclature

  • Assignment of definite names to plants

  • Involves the principles governed by rules formulated and adopted by International Botanical Congresses

  • Listed formally in a code – International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

ICBN

  • Major goal: provide one correct name for each taxon.

  • Taxa: taxonomic groups of any rank.

Nomenclaturist

  • Taxonomist assigning names to new taxa and validates the right names for old taxa per classifications

Scientific Names

  • Universal and recognized throughout the world

  • Provide information regarding generic and family relationships

  • A well-known plant has only one scientific name

  • Two or more plants always have different scientific names

  • All known plants have a scientific name

Binomial System of Nomenclature

  • Carolus Linnaeus (1753)

  • Two names: genus & species names

  • Latinized words

  • Saccharum officinarum

Genus Name

  • Always a noun

  • Written with a capitalized initial letter and the remainder small

Types of origin:

  • a. Names of well-known persons (Candollea – in honor of A.P. de Candolle)

  • b. Descriptive with some common characteristics of the included species (Cercocarpus – coiled fruit)

  • c. Poetic or mythological origin (Theobroma – God’s food)

  • d. Aboriginal name of the plant (Betula and Quercus – old Greek names for Birch and Oak)

Specific Epithet

  • Written with a small initial letter

  • Derived from person’s name – the initial letter of the epithet may be a capital letter

  • Often an adjective

  • May be a name in honor of a person

  • May be derived from a geographical location

  • May originate from an old common name

  • May be derived from some characteristics of the plant

  • May also be named arbitrarily

  • The authority, written after the specific epithet, is never underlined

  • Typed or handwritten – genus and species names should be underlined (separate lines)

  • Should be printed in italics or boldface (genus and species)

  • Incomplete if not followed by full or abbreviation name(s) of the author (s)

  • Pyrus malus L.

  • To verify the date or time of the first valid publication of the name of a particular taxon

ICBN

  • Linnaeus – proposed the elementary rules of naming plants in his Philosophia Botanica

  • A.P. De Candolle – detailed set of rules regarding plant nomenclature in his Theorie elementaire

  • Alphonse de Candolle – convened the First International Botanical Congress in Paris (1867)

  • Set of rules of plant nomenclature – most of which were proposed by A. De Candolle

  • De Candolle Rules or Paris Code of 1867

  • 1930 – Code of Nomenclature – International Code of Botanical Nomenclature

  • This edition of the Code embodies the decisions of the Nomenclature Section of the XIX International Botanical Congress (IBC), which took place in Shenzhen, China in July, 2017.

  • This Shenzhen Code supersedes the Melbourne Code (McNeill & al. in Regnum Veg. 154. 2012), published after the XVIII IBC in Melbourne, Australia in 2011.

ICBN/ICN

  • Divided into three parts:

  • Principles

  • Rules

  • Recommendations

Philosophical Basis of ICBN

Six Principles:

  • Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological nomenclature

  • The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of nomenclatural types

  • The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon priority of publication

  • Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position, and rank can bear only one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the rules, except in specific cases

  • Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their derivation

  • The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited

Rules and Recommendations of ICBN

  • Object of the Rules: Ordering nomenclature and prevent names contradicting rules

  • Recommendations: Policies to produce uniform clarity, especially in nomenclature and future nomenclature

  • Rules and Recommendations of ICBN: all organisms treated as plants (including fungi, excluding bacteria)

  • Recent Code edition: supersedes all previous editions

Some Important Rules of Nomenclature

  • RANKS AND ENDINGS OF TAXA

  • Species: basic classification unit

  • Acceptance of grammatical endings/suffixes is provided by ICBN (1983)

Endings Examples:

  • Division: -phyta, Magnoliophyta

  • Subdivision: -phytina, Pterophytina

  • Class: -opsida, Pteropsida

  • Subclass: -opsidae, Pteropsidae

  • Order: -ales, Rosales, Asterales

  • Suborder: -ineae, Rosineae

  • Family: -aceae, Rosaceae

  • Subfamily: -oideae, Rosoideae

  • Tribe: -eae, Roseae

  • Subtribe: -inae, Rosinae

  • Genus: -us,a,um, -on, es, Rosa, Aster, etc

Principle of Priority

  • Each taxon is known by its earliest name

  • Cleome gynandra Linn (1753)

  • Cleome pentaphylla Linn - Linnaeus changed its name

  • 1824 – De Candolle recognized 3 separate genera (Cleome, Polanisia, and Gynandropsis)

  • 1960 – Iltis merged Gynandropsis and Cleome into one genus

Citation of Author

  • ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Complete and accurate name of author publishing the name

  • Liliaceae Adans ; Lilium superbum Linn.

  • JOINT AUTHOR: Names of both authors should be cited (et or & )

  • Illicium griffithi Hook & Thorns ; Illicium griffithi Hook et Thorns

  • RANK ALTERATION: Name of first author cited in parentheses, the alterer second.

  • Allioni raised the rank of variety Medico polymorpha var. orbicularis L. to the species rank

  • Medico orbicularis (L.) All.

  • NAME PROPOSAL: Word ex between the former author and subsequent author

  • Gossypium tomentosum Nutt ex Seem.

Type Method

  • Legal device to provide correct name for a taxon

  • Type specimen – a herbarium sheet used by the author to provide its authentic description

  • HOLOTYPE: specimen used by the author in the original publication

  • ISOTYPE: duplicate of the holotype

  • LECTOTYPE: Selected by a competent worker when no holotype or destroyed holotype

  • NEOTYPE: serves as substitute for the holotype when all name-associated material is missing

NOMENCLATURAL TYPE:

  • Element with which the name of a taxon is permanently associated

Synonyms and Related Definitions

  • SYNONYM: Name rejected for reason in taxonomic judgement

  • BASIONYM: Specific or intraspecific with priority when transferred.

  • HOMONYM: Identical names based on different types of which only one can be a legitimate name.

  • TAUTONYM: An illegitimate binomial in which the genus/species name is the same

  • Armoracia armoracia (L.) Britton

  • AUTONYM: Automatically created legitimate tautonym for infraspecific or infrageneric taxa

  • Hypericum subgenus Hypericum section Hypericum

Latin Diagnosis

  • The diagnosis, details and description of new taxa published before 1st January 1955 were accepted by ICBN as valid, irrespective of the language.

  • After this date, the description of any newTaxa would be considered valid only if accompanied by Latin diagnosis

Effective and Valid Publication

  • Effective & considered valid when distributed (printed) to general pubic that reaches established institutions.

Choice of Names When The Taxon Rank is Changed

  • When a taxon rank is changed, the legitimate name in its new rank is its correct name

Choice of Names When Sub-Rank Taxa are United

  • When ranked and united: Oldest Taxa name = united Taxa name

Retention of Names of Divided Taxa

  • When a genus/species is divided, the original name: genus/species

Retention of Names of Taxa on Transference

  • Transferred subdivision of genus (w/o changing rank), original legitimate name of taxa must be retained

Rejection of Names

  • Illegitimate (tautonym or homonym).

  • Permanent source of confusion.

  • Derived from 2+ elements.

  • Coincide with morphological term, are unitary designations to species, or words not intended as names.

Names of Different Taxa

  • ICBN (1983)

  • Genera/Higher ranks: monomials.

    • Aesculus L., Rosaceae Juss.

  • Species: binomials.

    • Gossypium tomentosum Nutt.

  • Subspecies: trinomials.

    • Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. palustris (L.) Clausen.

  • Varieties should be quadrinomials

    • Lilium catesbaei Walter ssp. catesbaei var. longii Fernald

Botanical Names

  • Latin (or latinized words)

  • Common prefixes

  • Numbers: uni-, bi-, tri-, quadri- etc.

  • Greek numbers: mon-, di-, tri-, tetra- etc.

Common Suffixes Used in Specific Epithets

  • -aceous, -alis, -aris, -arium, -aticus, -estris, -eus, -ilis, -osus

Plant Parts Used as Epithets

  • receptaculum, sepalum, ovarium, carpellum, pedicellus, loculus, pistillum, stylus, fructus, petalum, folium/phyllon, discus, rhiza, caulos

Specific Epithets Linked with Color

  • albicans, albus, atrovirens, aureus,

  • calcareus, candidus, croceus, flavidus,

  • flavus, fulvus, glaucus, niger,

  • purpureus, violaceous, viridis

Specific Epithets Linked with Geography

  • africanus, americanus, arabicus, argentinus,

  • asiaticus, australiensis, brasiliensis, canadensis,

  • chinensis, cubensis, germanicus, indicus,

  • sinensis, philippinensis, zeylanicus, mexicanus

Specific Epithets Linked with Size

  • altus, exaltatus, giganteus, grandis, humilis, major, minor, minutus, procerus, pumilus, robustus

Specific Epithets Linked with Habit

  • arborescens, dichotomus, erectus, furcatus, prostratus, ramosus, repens, stoloniferus

Specific Epithets Linked with Habitats

  • amphibius, aquaticus, arvensis, campestris, hypogeus, lacustris, littoralis, maritimus,

  • montanus, palustris, rupestris, sativus, sylvaticus, sylvestris, terrestris

Plant Classification

  • Placement of plants into groups or categories for a clear understanding, proper study and effective organization

Ranks of Plant Classification

  • Species

  • Genus

  • Family

  • Order

  • Class

  • Division/Phylum

Ranks of Plant Classification Subcategories

  • Species : Subform, form, subvarieties, varieties, subspecies

  • Genus: Subsection, section, subgenus

  • Family: Subtribe, tribe, subfamily

  • Order: Suborder

  • Class: Subclass

  • Division: Subdivision

Types of Systems of Classification

  • Artificial classification Habit and importance

  • Theoprastus, Secundus, Dioscorides, Magnus, Brunfels, Bock and Fuchs

  • Mechanical classification Few selected taxonomic characters

  • Caesalpino, Bauhin, Tournefort, Linnaeus

  • Natural classification Used as many taxonomic characters as possible

  • Adanson, de Jussieu, de Candolle & son Alphonse, Bentham & Hooker

  • Phylogenetic classification Used as many taxonomic characters in addition to the phylogenetic (evolutionary) interpretations

  • Eichler, Engler, Prantl, Bessey, Takhtajan, Wettstein, Hallier, Hutchinson, Cronquist, Dahlgren and Thorne

Some Important Systems of Classifications John Ray – Methods Plantarum (1703)

  • Form of relationships

  • Grouping together plants that resembled one another

  • He was the first one to divide herbs, shrubs and tress into dicotyledons and monocotyledons based on the presence of one or two cotyledons

Some Important Systems of Classifications

  • Flowering Non flowering
    Monocotyledons: DICOTYLEDONES MONOCOTYLEDONES
    Monocotyledons: MONOCOTYLEDONES DICOTYLEDONES

Most prodigious systematist of all times

  • Born on May 23, 1707 in Sweden

  • 1737 – finished medicine from the University of Harderwijk of Netherlands

  • He became the personal physician of a wealthy banker George Clifford

Some Important Systems of Classifications Clifford was interested in plants

  • Linnaeus remained in Netherlands for three years

  • He travelled in Europe and collected plants

  • 1741- he returned to Sweden and became the professor of Botany and Medicine at the University of Uppasala

  • WORKS:

  • SYSTEMA NATURAE – contains the outline of his system of classification

  • GENERA PLANTARUM – contains the description of several genera

  • SPECIES PLANTARUM – two volumes; contains his detailed views on plant identification and description of species

  • Plant collections of Linnaeus was sold by his wife to J.E. Smith (British botanist)

  • J.E. Smith – one of the founders of Linnean Society of London

  • Entire plant collection – Office of the Linnean Society in Burlington House, Piccadilly, London

  • Linnaeus’s system of classification – artificial sexual system

  • Radford (1986) – described it as mechanical system of classification

  • Linnaeus divided plants into 24 classes mainly on the bases of number, union and length of stamens

Dominant for seven decades

  • Linnaeus divided the classes into orders

  • Algae, fungi, mosses, and ferns are under one class Cryptogamia (based on the number of styles)

  • Linnaeus classification lasted seven decades

  • Replaced by natural classification systems of A.L. de Jussieu and A.P. de Candolle on form relationships

Some Important Systems of Classifications Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu

  • Natural system of classification (Genera Plantarum Secundus Ordines Naturales Disposita)

  • Recognized 100 orders of the plants which are now called families

  • Divided the plants into three main groups: Acotyledones, Monocotyledones and Dicotyledones

  • Used number of cotyledons, presence or absence of cotyledons, number of petals, presence or absence of petals and position of stamens

Agustin Pyramus de Candolle Natural system of classification (Theorie Elementaire de la Botanique)

  • Divided plants into two major groups: Cellulares (non-vascular plants) and Vasculares (vascular plants)

  • Prodromus – described all the species of the vascular plants

  • Large genera are divided into section and subsections
    Some Important Systems of Classifications George Bentham & Joseph Dalton Hooker Most accepted natural system of classification (Genera Plantarum – contains description of all known genera of seed plants published in Latin)

  • Divided all Phanerogams or seed plants into Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons

August Wilhelm Eichler Transitional phylogenetic system of classification

  • Non-seed and seed plants

  • Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
    Adolf Engler and Karl Prantl Transitional phylogenetic system Radford (1986) – phylogenetic system Provided keys and descriptions of all the plant families known to them at that time Classified all the plants from algae to angiosperms
    Engler and Prantl: Placed monocots before dicots; considered orchids more evolved than grasses; divided plant kingdom into 14 divisions

Charles Edwin Bessey Pure phylogenetic system of plant classification classifications

  • Ranalian concept of evolution
    * Ranales were the primitive angiosperms

  • One branch of Ranales developed into monocots and the other into dicots

John Hutchinson Phylogenetic system

  • Genera of Flowering Plants and Families of Flowering Plants

  • Shrubs & tress are primitive than herbs in any one genus or family *Perennial are older than annuals, biennials

  • Aquatic flowering plants derived from terrestrial ancestors
    * Dicots are primitive compared to monocots
    * Simple leaves are primitive than compound leaves
    * Dioecious plants are more recent than monoecious
    * Inflorescence is more advanced than the solitary flowers
    * Apetalous flowers are derived from petals flowers
    * Aggregate fruits are more evolved than single fruits
    * Polypetaly is more primitive than gamopetaly
    * Actinomorphy is more primitive than zygomorphy
    *Apetalous flowers are derived from flowers with petals
    **Current systems of classifiers, Armen Takhtajan proposed a new classification with Anatomy, Embryology and chemistry

    • Robert Thorne. Ultastructure embryology morphology seed and pollen Morphology host. Monophyletic origin of angiospers
      Eduardo Quisumbing Phd. Was plant taxonomy Systematic and morphology Saccolabium quisumbingii has been named in his honor

    • Leonardo Co Filipino. discovered eight new plant of species Philipphine Native Plants Conservation. Mycaranthes leonardi, Rafflesia leonardi Orchid. 3rd Largest flower in world
      Edwino Fernsndo. revision of GENus nenga In southeAst and palms of the region and contributed to our knowledge. Knowledge of plants survery discovery

  • There is Cytotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy Molecular classification

  • External morphology relations to the taxonomy.Easily used and observable most and frequently used and applied Morphology vegetative character growth patterns. Floral character Floral structure. Inflorescence.

  • Vegetatice

  • EPIDERMIS Shape Wall Thickness Inculsion Occlusion Distrinution. Trichomes Size Function Relation with all structures
    Motor cell grass. specialised cells. Sclereids rarely contain except families that contain
    Size function cell wall patterns Pitting of of Vessel element and wall
    Relation to wood. Different characters

  • Microspore Megaspore gametophuyte development. Anther type the formation of endosperms embryos, seed coats
    Chemotaxanomy application of chemistry with test
    Ecology relation. the distribution adaption. Below the genes that are

  • Microfossils Macro Evolution of fossils.
    Understanding of relations

  • Pollu

  • Ecology. Biology to understand and develop and evolve Genetic

  • A new type of relation reproduction
    Flowering the of traits and adaptation

  • breeding and Timing. the over all time frame semiparous and iteroparous.

Molecular sequence

  • Numerical value

*Chemotaxonoy
On basis of protein Serotaxanory for identification
Evolution origin of the life. Modifications of genes with transfer and of species

  • Synapomorphies and autapomorphic relation and

Monophy