Notes on Post-War America: The Dawn of a New Era (1919–1920)

1919–1920: Post-War America — A Dawn of a New Era

• Overview of 1919 as a pivotal year following World War I and amid a global influenza pandemic.
  • Global war casualties: estimates exceed $37{,}000{,}000$ (combat deaths, missing in action, wounded).
  • Spanish flu pandemic: affected about one in five people worldwide; approx. $20{,}000{,}000$ deaths globally.
  • The U.S. suffered nearly $700{,}000$ American lives lost to the flu, ≈ fourteen times WWI military deaths.
  • The spring of 1918–spring 1919 outbreaks began at induction camps (e.g., Manhattan, Kansas).
• Domestic upheaval in the U.S. during 1919:
  • A wave of labor strikes disrupted major industries and urban life in nearly every large city.
  • Bombings targeting political figures spurred the government to unprecedented crackdowns.
  • Racial violence exposed shortcomings of American democracy at the moment Wilson proclaimed victory for world democracy after the Great War.
• Wilson’s internationalist agenda vs. European hardliners: a clash between idealism and punitive aims.

The Fourteen Points and the Paris Peace Conference

• Wilson arrived in Paris on $December ext{ 16}, ext{ 1918}$ with rising U.S. political prestige and global visibility.
• Wilson’s vision: self-determination, freedom of the seas, free trade, end to secret diplomacy, and a global association of nations to peacefully resolve conflicts.
• The League of Nations as the centerpiece: Wilson made it his top priority at Versailles.
• Wilson’s address and global reach: the Fourteen Points speech was broadcast via a radio network, enabling real-time world-wide reach to millions.
• Allied leaders’ response: Georges Clemenceau (France) and David Lloyd George (Britain) were skeptical of Wilson’s idealism due to war losses and desire for punitive terms.
• War costs on the Allies: France lost about $1{,}385{,}300$ soldiers; Britain ~$900{,}000$.
• Versailles outcome: a peace treaty signed on $June 28, 1919$; Germany blamed for the war and required to cede colonies, reduce armed forces, and pay reparations (notably $21{,}000{,}000{,}000 ext{ dollars}$).
• Wilson’s core compromise: insistence on the League of Nations within the treaty; 26-article Covenant pledging collective security and peace.
• Early diplomacy result: Wilson’s vision of “Peace Without Victory” compromised by Allied insistence on accountability and punitive terms for Germany.

Versailles, the League, and U.S. Domestic Politics

• Treaty terms and League exclusion: despite Wilson’s ideals, Versailles reflected punitive measures toward Germany and selective incorporation of his points.
• Congressional ratification challenge: U.S. Senate required two-thirds approval for ratification; the process became a partisan battle.
• Lodge and the Reservationists: Henry Cabot Lodge (Republican) organized opposition; existences of Reservationists and Irreconcilables in the Senate.
  • Article X of the League Covenant: reservationists feared interlocking alliance commitments would threaten U.S. sovereignty.
  • Lodge led the effort to insert amendments (Forty-two proposed amendments) to ensure U.S. sovereignty.
• Wilson’s stance: refused to compromise on reservations; believed League membership was essential for lasting peace.
• Health crisis during negotiations: Wilson contracted Spanish flu-like illness and/or a stroke during the Paris Conference; health issues impaired leadership and bargaining.
• Cross-country tour and health impact: a $9{,}981 ext{ mile}$ rail journey to rally public support for the League; the tour strained Wilson’s health and ended prematurely with a major stroke on $October ext{ 2}, ext{ 1919}$.
• Constitutional tension: The U.S. Constitution’s separation of powers meant Senate approval was necessary for ratification; Wilson’s illness hindered decisive negotiations.

Cross-Country Campaign, Health Crisis, and the 25th Amendment

• Wilson’s public campaign to secure Senate approval intensified in 1919, including a national speaking tour.
• Wilson’s stroke and suspected neurological damage: headaches, aphasia, and partial paralysis persisted after return from Paris.
• The 25th Amendment: later ratified in 1967; provided a formal process for presidential disability, not applicable in 1919–1920 but relevant to constitutional governance debates.
• Senate actions against the Treaty: Lodge introduced a revised treaty with fourteen reservations; Democrats and Irreconcilables voted down the treaty in 1919–1920; ultimately the treaty failed to pass in March 1920 (vote 49–35).
• Aftermath: Without U.S. ratification, the League of Nations remained weak and the postwar liberal order faced erosion; subsequent American internationalism would reemerge in World War II and the formation of the United Nations in 1945.

Labor Strife, the Red Scare, and Civil Liberties

• Postwar labor unrest: 1919 saw 3,600 strikes involving more than 4 million workers; major strike waves included shipyards in Seattle and broader industrial actions.
• AFL vs IWW dynamics: traditional labor unions (AFL) vs radical elements (IWW, the Wobblies) reflected growing tension in the labor movement.
• The Seattle general strike (Feb–Mar 1919): federal troops intervened; a landmark event signaling labor radicalization fears.
• The end of the war profits and postwar inflation contributed to wage demands and strike momentum.
• The Red Scare: Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer led a national crackdown on suspected subversives; the creation of the General Intelligence Division (GID) in the Bureau of Investigation and the recruitment of J. Edgar Hoover to lead the FBI in later years.
• Palmer Raids (Nov 1919–Jan 1920): thousands of arrests; raids targeted leftist organizations and deported many foreign-born radicals (e.g., Emma Goldman, 249 deportations from Ellis Island in Dec 1919).
• Espionage and Sedition Acts: wartime laws that persisted into the postwar era, restricting dissent and political speech.

First Amendment Cases and the Free Speech Debate

• Schenck v. United States (1919): Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. upheld restriction of speech that posed a "clear and present danger" to national defense during wartime; speech protected in ordinary times but not in wartime contexts.
• Debs v. United States (1919): Debs sentenced to ten years for anti-war speech; the Court upheld the conviction under the Sedition Act.
• Abrams v. United States (1919): the Court, in a 7–2 decision, denied protection for leaflets calling for a general strike; Holmes dissented, arguing for broader protection of speech and the marketplace of ideas.
• Holmes’ evolving view: expressed concern that the “clear and present danger” test could overly chill dissent; his Abrams dissent foreshadowed a broader rebuke of suppression of unpopular ideas.
• The Sacco and Vanzetti case (early 1920s): high-profile trial of two Italian anarchists; verdict and execution in 1927 reflected anti-immigrant, anti-radical sentiment and the era’s Red Scare climate.

The Great Migration and African-American Culture

• The Great Migration (1915–1920 onward): over a million African Americans moved from the rural South to northern and western cities in search of jobs and escape from Jim Crow violence; by 1920, migration created lasting demographic shifts in urban areas.
  • Census data shows dramatic population growth in northern cities: Detroit (+$611.3\%$), Cleveland (+$307.8\%$), Chicago (+$148.2\%$); New York and Philadelphia also saw substantial increases.
• Harlem Renaissance: the cultural flowering of African-American art, literature, and music in the 1920s, centered in Harlem, New York, and becoming a symbol of Black urban cultural assertion.
• Jazz as a global phenomenon: origins in New Orleans; key figures include Jelly Roll Morton, King Oliver, Louis Armstrong; jazz spreads through Chicago, New York, Kansas City, and internationally.
• The Harlem Defender newspaper and other media helped shape Black cultural identity and political thought.
• Notable performers: Louis Armstrong’s career blossomed in Chicago; Josephine Baker became an international star in Paris; Jazz’s evolution included innovations in recording and radio dissemination.

Jazz Age, Radio, and Global Cultural Exchange

• Jazz origins in New Orleans; spread via migration and urban clubs; mid-1920s electrical recording improved sound capture; radio expanded reach.
• Major centers: New Orleans, Chicago, Kansas City, New York; Cotton Club and Roseland Ballroom as key venues; Ellington and Whiteman helped define the era.
• Count Basie and the Kansas City swing style emerged later in the decade.
• International reach: African-American soldiers, including the 369th Infantry Band (Harlem Hellfighters), introduced jazz to Europe; some veterans chose to stay in Europe, influencing cultural exchange.
• Paris, London, Berlin, Shanghai, and other cities developed vibrant jazz scenes; the Soviet Union initially welcomed touring jazz before 1928 when Stalin deemed it degenerate.
• Controversy: jazz faced moral panic among conservatives who linked it to immorality and urban “degeneracy,” yet its popularity grew as the Roaring Twenties unfolded.

The Red Summer, Race Riots, and Marcus Garvey

• Red Summer (April–November 1919): elevated racial violence across the U.S.; 76 lynchings documented; 18 major race riots from 1915 to 1919.
• July 27, 1919 Chicago riot: Lake Michigan incident sparked seven days of unrest; 38 deaths, 500+ injuries; federal troops restored order.
• Washington, D.C. riot and Home Defense League violence; federal troops deployed to quell unrest.
• Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA): founded in Harlem; Garvey advocated Black self-determination and black nationalism ("Africa for the Africans"); UNIA grew rapidly, establishing 1,000+ branches in 38 states and 41 countries, with up to 2 million members.
  • The Negro World newspaper claimed 50,000 subscribers; estimates up to 200,000 readers.
  • Liberty Hall in Harlem became a major rallying venue; Garvey’s flamboyant uniforms and titles signaled a reclamation of Black dignity and leadership.
  • Tensions with the NAACP and W. E. B. Du Bois; government scrutiny increased under J. Edgar Hoover’s anti-radical division.
  • Garvey’s legal challenges culminated in a 1923 felony mail fraud conviction; deported in 1927 after serving time.
  • Garvey’s ideas influenced later Black nationalist movements, including figures like Malcolm X; the New Negro Movement would be discussed later in the guide.

Constitutional Amendments and the Progressive Era’s End

• Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition
  • The Volstead Act took effect on $ext{January } 17, 1920$, enforcing a nationwide ban on alcoholic beverages above 0.05 ext{%} ABV.
  • Prohibition emerged as a long-running crusade of the temperance and women’s movements; WWI-era xenophobia aided the crackdown on German-American drinking establishments.
  • Enforcement challenges: widespread illegal production and distribution; speakeasies proliferated; criminal organizations and bootlegger networks grew.
  • Consequences: a significant expansion of federal enforcement power; public resistance and varied enforcement across states; 1930s decline in enforcement as political will waned.
• The Nineteenth Amendment (women’s suffrage)
  • Ratified on $August ext{ 18}, 1920$; history traces to state-level gains beginning in 1869 (Wyoming) and broad support by 1916 platforms.
  • The suffrage movement featured two major strands: militant protests led by Alice Paul’s National Women’s Party (NWP) and more moderate strategies by Carrie Chapman Catt’s NAWSA.
  • Pivotal incidents: White House picketing, hunger strikes, and government responses to suffrage activism.
  • After ratification, turnout remained modest: about $35\%$ of eligible women voted in 1920; $34\%$ in 1924; African-American women faced legal barriers in the South.
  • Organizational trajectories: NAWSA peaked at ~2 million members in 1920; League of Women Voters grew to ~100,000 by 1930; NWP shifted toward an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) effort that faced opposition from various groups.
  • The Sheppard–Towner Maternity Act (1921) supported health services for mothers and children but was phased out in 1929.
• Return to Normalcy: Republican Rule Returns to Washington
• President Warren G. Harding and the 1920 Election
  • Harding’s background: Ohio newspaper owner, backroom party operator, perceived as ordinary and relatable; campaign slogan “Return to Normalcy.”
  • Victory: 1920 election landslide; Harding won $60.3\%$ of popular vote and $404/531$ electoral votes.
• Foreign Affairs: Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922)
  • Harding’s approach: rejection of Wilsonian internationalism but active diplomacy; invitation to nine nations to Washington, D.C.
  • Delegation led by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes; aim to prevent a new naval arms race.
  • Treaties created: the Five-Power Treaty (capital ships 5:5:3 ratio for USA, Britain, Japan for 15 years); the Four-Power Treaty (USA, Britain, Japan, France) to respect Pacific claims; the Nine-Power Treaty to uphold Open Door in China.
  • Outcomes and debates: treaties praised for bipartisan support and public engagement; critics argued they delayed, not prevented, future conflicts and left Japan with room to expand naval power; actual shipbuilding fell behind post-1922–1929.

Domestic Scandals and the Economy: Ponzi, Teapot Dome, and the Dawes Plan

• Ponzi Scheme (early 1920)
  • Charles Ponzi promised 50% returns in 45 days, 100% in 90 days via IRC arbitrage; mass investment by tens of thousands of people across social strata.
  • The Boston Post and others exposed the lack of sufficient IRCs; a collapse triggered bank failures and total losses for many uninvested savers.
  • Indictments for mail fraud, forgery, and larceny; Ponzi served prison time and became a symbol of 1920s fraud.
• The Teapot Dome Scandal
  • President Harding’s cabinet was beset by corruption.
  • Albert B. Fall, Secretary of the Interior, leased Navy oil reserves at Elk Hills (California) and Teapot Dome (Wyoming) to private interests in exchange for bribes totaling $over 1{,}000{,}000$ dollars; Fall received $400{,}000$ in bribes.
  • Investigations led to Fall’s resignation (1923), a conviction for bribery (later sentenced to one year in prison and a $100{,}000$ fine); Doheny escaped a bribery conviction but faced related charges; Sinclair faced contempt convictions.
  • President Harding died in 1923; public perception of his administration’s corruption contributed to a lasting assessment of his presidency.
• The Dawes Plan (1924)
  • A plan to stabilize the German economy and debt, led by Charles Dawes; involved U.S. loans and restructuring of German reparations.
  • Components: $ext{unconditional reparations payments of }$153{,}000{,}000$per year; a mechanism to bridge German debt with Allied debt and U.S. credit flows.</li> <li>Mechanism respect: the Dawes Plan created a cycle that linked German payments to Allied debt payments to the United States; this “debt carousel” stabilized the German economy temporarily but created global financial interdependence.</li> <li>Long-term impact: dependence on American credit contributed to global vulnerability in the late 1920s and the onset of the Great Depression.</li></ul></li> </ul> <h3 id="sectionisummary">Section I Summary</h3> <ul> <li><p>Versailles Peace Conference outcome: League of Nations incorporated but not fully embraced by European allies; Wilson limited by health and political opposition in the U.S.</p></li> <li><p>Wilson’s health crisis during cross-country campaign; stroke left him incapacitated, affecting policy and negotiations.</p></li> <li><p>Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles and League membership in March 1920, marking a retreat from Wilsonian internationalism and a turn toward isolationism.</p></li> <li><p>Labor strikes and government responses shaped domestic politics in 1919–1920; the Red Scare and civil liberties debates (Schenck, Debs, Abrams) redefined the boundaries of free speech in wartime and postwar contexts.</p></li> <li><p>The Great Migration reshaped urban demographics and culture, culminating in a vibrant African-American cultural movement and the Harlem Renaissance.</p></li> <li><p>Prohibition (18th Amendment) and women’s suffrage (19th Amendment) redefined social norms and the federal government’s reach into daily life, producing mixed results in enforcement and political participation.</p></li> <li><p>The 1920 election and the Harding era, followed by the Washington Naval Conference, established a distinct shift toward domestic prosperity, business-driven policy, and cautious internationalism.</p></li> <li><p>Economic policy under Coolidge (post-1923) emphasized tax cuts, reduced regulation, and a favorable business environment; the Dawes Plan (1924) anchored U.S. leadership in managing postwar debt and reparations, though with long-run vulnerabilities.</p></li> <li><p>Connections and implications for the broader historical arc: the era set the stage for a global order that would eventually be reshaped by the Great Depression, World War II, and the establishment of the United Nations; it also highlighted tensions between idealistic internationalism and national sovereignty, between progressive reforms and conservative counter-movements, and between civil liberties and national security.</p></li> <li><p>Key figures and terms to remember:</p> <ul> <li>Woodrow Wilson; Henry Cabot Lodge; Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points; League of Nations Covenant (twenty-six articles).</li> <li>Meuse-Argonne offensive; armistice on$November 11, 1918$;${26}$$-article Covenant; Lodge’s forty-two reservations; Irreconcilables.
  • Palmer Raids; Espionage Act (1917) and Sedition Act (1918 intact postwar); Schenck v. United States (1919); Debs v. United States (1919); Abrams v. United States (1919).
  • Marcus Garvey; UNIA; Harlem Renaissance; Louis Armstrong; Duke Ellington; Josephine Baker; The Negro World.
  • Prohibition (18th Amendment, Jan 17, 1920) and Volstead Act (0.05% ABV); Nineteenth Amendment (Aug 18, 1920); turnout in 1920 (35%); 1924 turnout (34%).
  • Warren G. Harding; Calvin Coolidge; Washington Naval Conference; Five-Power Treaty (5:5:3); Dawes Plan (1924); Teapot Dome Scandal.
  • Economic indicators: postwar inflation, wage dynamics, farm foreclosures, and shifting urban-rural demographics; Dawes Plan’s open-ended debt structure and its global implications.

End of Section I Summary