Government and Opposition, 1963-1989
Division to Unity: The Federal Republic of Germany, 1949-1991
Plan for the Session
Aim: To examine the extent of government control after Adenauer.
Objectives:
To develop an understanding of the key Chancellors after Adenauer.
To examine the key political parties and policies under the three-party system.
To evaluate the extent to which there was a political consensus up until 1989.
Key Chancellors
The Transition from Adenauer
The Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU) under Adenauer dominated politics in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) until 1963.
Following Adenauer's tenure, major political shifts occurred, including the continued dominance of the CDU/CSU, which led coalitions for another six years.
In 1969, the first Socialist Chancellor, Willy Brandt, was elected, marking the first Socialist leadership since the Weimar Republic’s collapse in 1930.
This ushered in a period of political turbulence, as three main parties (CDU/CSU, Social Democratic Party (SPD), and Free Democratic Party (FDP)) competed for influence amid increasing economic and social pressures.
Ludwig Erhard, 1963-1966
Erhard had a distinguished background, previously serving as the head of the Economics Research Institute and as Professor of Economics at Munich University.
In March 1948, he was instrumental in the merger creating Bizonia.
He was first elected to the Bundestag as a Christian Democrat in 1949 and served as Federal Minister of Economics until 1963.
Erhard oversaw the period known as the ‘economic miracle’ (Wirtschaftswunder) and succeeded Adenauer as Chancellor but stepped down in 1966.
Willy Brandt, 1969-1974
Brandt fled to Norway to escape Nazi persecution, joining the German resistance movement in Sweden during WWII.
He served as the Mayor of Berlin from 1957 to 1966 and became SPD Chairman from 1966 to 1987.
His major contribution as Chancellor was the policy of ‘Ostpolitik’ aimed at improving relations with Eastern Europe, for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.
Brandt resigned in 1974 and shifted focus to international affairs.
Helmut Schmidt, 1974-1982
Schmidt served on the Eastern Front during WWII, later joining the SPD.
He was elected to the Bundestag in 1953 and served as Minister of Defence from 1969 to 1972 and Minister of Finance from 1972 to 1974 before becoming Chancellor.
Schmidt faced opposition from the left within his party, ultimately losing power in 1982 due to a shift in coalition support.
Helmut Kohl, 1982-1989
Kohl entered the Land Parliament as a member of the CDU in 1959 and served as Prime Minister from 1969 to 1976.
He played a significant role in reunifying Germany and was re-elected in 1990, stepping down in 1998.
New Political Parties
NPD (National Democratic Party)
The NPD is a far-right party that advocated for reunification and espoused strong nationalist views.
Founded in 1964, it had some local electoral success in the late 1960s, but its influence waned thereafter, only to experience a slight resurgence in the 1980s due to immigration issues.
The party never secured seats in the Bundestag because of the 5% election rule.
The Green Party (Die Grünen)
Emerging from an anti-nuclear campaign group in the late 1970s, the Greens focused on environmentalism and opposition to nuclear missile deployment in West Germany during 1983.
They gained 5.6% of the vote, enabling them to enter the Bundestag, albeit facing internal divisions; they polled 8.3% in 1987.
Chancellorship of Ludwig Erhard (1963-1966)
Erhard as Chancellor
Erhard initially made few changes, maintaining CDU/CSU support with 47.6% of the vote in 1965, resulting in 246 seats compared to SPD’s 202 and FDP’s 49.
His major program was the ‘Formierte Gesellschaft’ (Disciplined Society), emphasizing the community’s ‘common good’ as economic prosperity.
Economic Difficulties
In 1965, Germany encountered a recession, with inflation reaching 4% by 1966.
As a result, Erhard raised interest rates and abandoned his spending plans, which eroded his popularity.
He suggested increasing work hours to combat economic downturn, further inviting criticism; the NPD capitalized on the situation, labeling his government as weak.
The Impact on the CDU/CSU
The CDU/CSU suffered a local electoral defeat in Rhineland-Westphalia in 1966, indicating a decline in support.
Disputes emerged within the coalition regarding recession responses: CDU/CSU favored tax increases while FDP supported spending cuts.
In November 1966, Erhard resigned, and Kurt Georg Kiesinger succeeded him as Chancellor and CDU/CSU leader.
The Grand Coalition (1966-1969)
Formation of the Grand Coalition
Established in December 1966, the coalition between CDU/CSU and SPD aimed to address the economic crisis under Kiesinger's leadership.
This restructured arrangement allowed the CDU/CSU to govern without FDP's influence while providing SPD an opportunity to demonstrate governance capabilities.
Overall support from the public was largely in favor, though some left-wing factions feared a drift towards a one-party state due to Kiesinger's past links to the Nazi Party.
Increasing Pressure on the Coalition
In May 1968, an amendment to the constitution enabled an elected committee to take emergency measures amid civil unrest.
This amendment faced criticism from the left, including journalists and students, for undermining parliamentary democracy reminiscent of Article 48.
The growing strength of the rightist NPD also confronted the coalition, which gained local election seats throughout 1967 and 1968.
Suggestions for altering the political system from proportional representation to first-past-the-post emerged, albeit with limited support as only CDU/CSU would benefit.
Addressing Economic Issues
Karl Schiller (SPD Minister of Finance) and Franz-Josef Strauss (CDU Minister of Finance) collaborated to tackle economic difficulties, leading to greater control for central government over local spending and taxation.
This redefined local-central government relations but was complemented by economic recovery by 1968, restoring public confidence.
Tensions in the Coalition
Despite economic achievements, internal tensions plagued the coalition, with the SPD advocating for welfare reforms stymied by CDU/CSU reluctance.
Felicitations for détente diminished, a policy aimed at easing East-West relations during the Cold War, leading to the coalition's eventual decline.
The coalition faced its final blow in 1969 when SPD's Gustav Heinemann won the presidential elections against CDU/CSU’s Gerhard Schröder.
The Fall of the CDU/CSU
In 1969, the Bundestag elections were pivotal, seeing SPD and FDP run a united campaign for the left, resulting in a combined majority of 48.1%.
While FDP gained only 5.8%, this prompted Brandt and FDP leader Walter Scheel to establish the first coalition government excluding CDU/CSU, which garnered 46.1% of the vote.
Evaluating the Grand Coalition
A collaborative exercise to categorize the issues faced by the Grand Coalition reflecting criticism from both the left and right, including internal divisions.
Chancellorship of Willy Brandt (1969-1974)
The Significance of the 1969 Elections
Brandt was elected Chancellor by a narrow 251 votes to 249 in the Bundestag, signifying a shift in the political landscape—a successful parliamentary democracy independent of CDU/CSU dominance.
Chancellor of Domestic Reforms
Brandt aimed to implement extensive social and political reforms, espousing ‘dare more democracy.’
Reforms included lowering the voting age to 18 in 1974, and several welfare enhancements, such as increased pensions and benefits, extended education access, job creation initiatives, and environmental provisions using railways.
Case Study: Education Reforms
Education reforms made a notable impact, with increased teacher recruitment, student financial aid, and improved university accessibility.
School leaving age was raised to 16, alongside abolishing fees for further education—education budget provision rose from 3% to 6% during Brandt's chancellorship.
Investments of 1 billion Marks facilitated increased school places by 30,000 and expanded university enrollment from 100,000 to 650,000, with grants available for low-income students.
The Financial Cost of Reform
Enhanced social reforms necessitated increased government spending, inflating the existing crisis, leading to further divisions within the coalition regarding government expenditure.
In 1972, Minister for Finance Karl Schiller resigned over budgetary disputes, succeeded by Helmut Schmidt.
Terrorism
The 1970s saw Brandt face a wave of terrorism, forcing tough responses that created divisions within the SPD, particularly among progressive factions like the Jusos (Young Socialists).
The 1972 Munich Massacre, where Israeli Olympic team members were taken hostage by the Palestinian group Black September, exemplified the violent climate.
Ostpolitik
Ostpolitik, or ‘Eastern Policy,’ was enacted by Brandt to normalize East-West relations, leading to several treaties enhancing cooperation from 1970 to 1973.
It diverged sharply from Adenauer’s Hallstein Doctrine, which had refused diplomatic relations with any country recognizing East Germany as a legitimate state.
The Political Impact of Ostpolitik
Ostpolitik divided the coalition, prompting some FDP members to defect to CDU/CSU.
In 1972, Brandt narrowly survived a no-confidence vote by two votes, later revealed to be secured through bribery in a highly charged political environment.
Brandt maintained considerable popularity and became central to the 1972 SPD election campaign.
The Outcome of the 1972 Election
The SPD's 1972 election victory represented their largest ever, garnering 45.8% of the vote, while the CDU/CSU lowered to 44.9%.
The SPD-FDP coalition secured a greater parliamentary majority by 46 seats.
Impact of the Oil Crisis
During his second term, the 1973 Oil Crisis posed major challenges, contributing to inflation spikes.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), including nations like Saudi Arabia and Iraq, imposed an embargo on oil sales to nations supporting Israel during the Yom Kippur War, adversely impacting West Germany's economy.
The Guillaume Affair
In 1974, Brandt’s advisor Günter Guillaume was exposed as an East German spy, creating a significant political scandal.
Guillaume, who had entered the FRG in the 50s as a ‘refugee,’ was sentenced to 13 years but returned to East Germany in 1981.
Brandt’s Resignation
Following the scandal, Brandt resigned amid various personal challenges, including scandals of adultery and issues affecting his mental health.
His economic policies were further criticized due to the fallout from the Oil Crisis, leading to speculation that Communist authorities aimed to destabilize his government.
Chancellorship of Helmut Schmidt (1974-1982)
Schmidt as Chancellor
Schmidt, Brandt’s handpicked successor, inherited a fragile governmental structure.
His assertive and decisive leadership style differed significantly from Brandt’s, gaining support despite initial precariousness, as he continued the policy of Ostpolitik.
Schmidt’s First Election
The 1976 election resulted in a minuscule SPD-FDP majority, with only a two-seat margin, placing Schmidt under considerable pressure to perform.
Issues Facing Schmidt
Economic challenges and coalition disagreements were rampant within the government during Schmidt’s tenure.
A significant debate surfaced over U.S. missile deployment in Germany, galvanizing both conservative factions and paving the way for the rise of the Greens.
The Mogadishu Incident
In October 1977, the hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 181 presented a major test for Schmidt, who opted for military intervention through a counter-terrorism operation that successfully rescued all hostages, enhancing his reputation nationwide.
The Collapse of Schmidt’s Chancellorship
Economic hardship led to welfare cuts that divided the coalition.
Schmidt’s government became a minority administration when FDP support waned, culminating in a no-confidence vote initiated by the CDU/CSU that ousted him, marking the first time a Chancellor was removed in such a manner in FRG history.
Chancellorship of Helmut Kohl (1982-1989)
Kohl as Chancellor
Kohl's vision for ‘moral change’ was juxtaposed with relative continuity in policies.
His administration dealt with several internal conflicts while securing electoral victories over the SPD in 1983, amidst rising unemployment.
Kohl and the Nazi Legacy
The early 1980s witnessed intense debates regarding Germany’s acknowledgment of its Nazi past.
Kohl, along with a new generation of leaders, confronted historical narratives, sparking discourse around collective guilt and the appropriate remembrance of the Holocaust.
Sleaze
Kohl’s government faced scrutiny for allegations of corruption, notably regarding undisclosed financial contributions from various industries, such as the Flick Corporation, which resulted in political fallout and public criticism of Kohl's leadership.
The Bitburg Controversy
In 1985, Kohl's commemoration of WWII's 40th anniversary at Bitburg cemetery drew backlash due to the presence of SS soldiers' graves, leading to public outrage and questionings of his appropriateness by various communities.
The Decline of the CDU/CSU
By 1987, CDU/CSU support had dipped to its lowest post-war levels despite gains for the FDP and the Greens.
Kohl's role in the reunification of Germany would ultimately define his legacy and consolidate his position as Chancellor, despite the looming threats of declining public support and scandal.