APAH unit 4 notes

110: Still Life in Studio and Early Photography

Photography was initially met with skepticism regarding its status as art because it was not considered handmade in the traditional sense. The process of the Still Life in Studio was considered an assembly rather than a creation from scratch. This piece represents the daguerreotype, which is the earliest known form of photography and was named directly after the artist Louis Daguerre. This method utilized chemicals to capture light and fix it into a permanent image. The composition of this work reflects earlier cultural traditions, specifically drawing from still life painting and Greek sculpture. This development stems from the camera obscurra, which provided the foundational principle for modern cameras.

114: Nadar Rising Photography to the Height of Art

This work serves as a satire or a mockery directed at a person taking a photograph. The artist uses the piece to satirize photography, as many at the time considered the medium to be stupid and not a form of art. The title itself is a play on words. Nadar was a famous photographer in Paris known for taking aerial photographs from high altitudes. The piece serves as a commentary on the future of the world, suggesting that everything will eventually be photographed. It highlights the ability of the medium to recreate and reproduce reality. Furthermore, it reflects a French cultural interest in surveillance and the concept of overlooking, while simultaneously attacking the legitimacy of photography.

127: The Steerage

This photograph is categorized as definite art. It depicts the division of social classes, characterized by the rich occupying the top level and the poor situated at the bottom. The context of the image involves travel to Ellis Island, where passengers were subjected to disease checks and documentation. The term "steerage" refers to the people on the bottom deck, which carried negative connotations. The image includes a person who was declined entry, illustrating the fact that authorities did not accept everyone. This piece captures the division of social classes and society at large. It is associated with the Photo-Secession movement, which aimed to make photography more respected as an art form. The artist utilized a certain angle and did not direct his subjects on where to go. To ensure reproduction, he created an etching known as a photogravure. The work was associated with Gallery 291, an artist gallery for pictures, and reflects the creator's desire to establish photography as art.

117: The Horse in Motion

This work was commissioned by Lelin Stanford for his house, named Salley Gardiner. To capture the image, the artist used $16$ different cameras. This led to the development of the zoopraxiscope, a device that spins to show running motion by displaying different frames on one wind. The study led to the discovery that horses actually go completely off the ground during a gallop. The argument for this being art rests on the creative decision of where to position the cameras.

99: Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de La Cruz

This is a posthumous portrait, meaning it was created after the subject's death. Sor Juana was a figure whom the Catholic Church originally opposed due to her writing, but she eventually became a hero of the church. She was a teacher who focused on reading and writing. Her life represents an insurrection of identity as both a nun and a scholar. She rose in society in New Mexico as a criollo of mestzgo. The religious aspects of her identity are shown through the cross, rosary necklace, habit, and the escudo (a painting around her neck). Her secular or scholarly identity is represented by the quill feather pen, her books, and the bookshelves.

100: A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery

An orrery is a mechanical model of the solar system. The piece depicts a lecture on heliocentrism, the theory that planetary bodies orbit the sun. The light in the painting symbolizes science and the Enlightenment, marking a shift away from religious explanations. The light originates from the orrery itself instead of from God.

101: The Swing

This work was commissioned by an aristocrat family for a painting of the husband's wife. It was intended to be private, seen only by people within the home. The scene depicts a husband pushing his wife on a swing, unaware that another man is present. The other man is looking up her skirt, an act of voyeurism. The painting reflects a lack of moral values, showing wealthy people who prioritize fun and indulgence. A shoe is shown falling off, symbolizing an act of undressing. An angel figure is shown in a "shushing" gesture, suggesting the secret should not be told. A dog is barking, but the man looking does not notice or care. The overall message is a focus on indulgence and the normalization of carelessness.

105: Self-Portrait of Elisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun

This painter worked for the King and Queen of France, specifically painting Marie Antoinette. This self-portrait depicts her in the act of painting the queen. Following the death of the king and queen, she escaped to Italy, making her an emigraé or immigrant. She was known for her love of painting herself. Her work represents the independence of women and their emergence in the French Royal Academy, standing for the rise of female artists.

103: The Oath of the Horatii

This piece was a reaction against Rococo art. It tells the story of protecting Rome and fighting for the city, intended to teach morals and sophistication. The Horatii were triplets from Rome who are shown receiving swords from their father. They are prepared to fight the Curatti (spelled curatti in transcript), a set of triplets from Eutruria. The women in the painting—sisters and wives—are upset because their brothers and husbands could die. One woman crying is a wife who came from Etruria but is married to a Roman, while her brother is from Etruria. Because of these familial ties, the outcome will be tragic regardless of who wins. The message is to evoke patriotism and the belief that one should have the loyalty to fight.

102: Monticello

This architectural work shows a progression of influence from Greece to Rome, the Italian Renaissance, France, and finally the USA. Thomas Jefferson (TJ) wanted to bring French architecture to the United States. While the building represents the founding of the country, it also reflects a context of evil, as it was a home for his wife and slaves, whom he sexually assaulted and had children with. The name Monticello means "little mountain" in Italian. Jefferson was inspired by the books of Paledo, an Italian architect, and shared a deep love for the Roman style of architecture.

104: George Washington

This sculpture is located inside the Richmond capital building and was created by a sculptor from France. It is based on Roman sculptures. It features the fasces, which are $13$ rods representing the strength of the government and the original $13$ colonies. The sculpture depicts Washington as a man of the farm who led the Revolutionary War and then returned to his farm. By serving only $2$ terms, he set the precedent for future presidents. Washington is noted contextually as a slave owner.

69: David by Donatello

This sculpture depicts David from the biblical story of David & Goliath, where David kills the giant using a rock and a sling. This was the first freestanding nude sculpture since antiquity. The return to nudity, along with blox-wast casting (lost-wax casting), contrapposto, and naturalism, marks the "Re-birth" or Renaissance. The sculpture sexualizes the male form, featuring effeminate or feminine features, and was likely influenced by the artist being gay. David's head is lowered to show humility. The message is to trust in God, as the viewer can relate to David's struggle. Allegorically, David beating Goliath represents Florence beating Milan, showing the power of a weaker force overcoming a stronger one.

63: Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel and Lamentation

The architect and artist of the frescos is Giotto de Bondone; some artists remain unknown. The chapel follows a Bascillian plan. It was commissioned by Scrovegni as a good deed to get into heaven and make up for the sin of usury, which is the practice of charging excessive interest on loans. The Lamentation scene depicts the mourning after the crucifixion as Jesus is brought down. It shows the Virgin Mary holding him. The style differs from the medieval period through the use of drapery and the expression of emotion. The scene is surrounded by the Gospels and putti, which are angels that reference Cupid.

67: Pazzi Chapel

This was a meeting place and cloister for monks. The architecture is described as numensic, going back to Greek architecture with a focus on geometry such as circles, squares, and right angles. All the features are ornamental. It reflects the philosophy of Humanism. It was commissioned by the Pazzi family for good works to ensure their place in heaven, even though they were medraits (likely referring to the Medici rivals).

70: Palazzo Rucellai

Commissioned by a wealthy Italian family as a place to live, this building focuses on Greek-inspired geometry including semi-circles, circles, and rectangles. It features multi-level stories and a rebirth of old forms. The front is a facade used for looks and is relatively flat. The first floor was used for a business or store, while the top floors contained apartments.

71: Madonna and Child with Two Angels

This painting features the Virgin Mary (M), the child Jesus, and angels holding him up. These types of paintings were used for prayer within the home, creating a personal relationship with God. The frame appears to go behind the viewer to place the divine figures in the house with you. This represents a humanizing of divine objects for private devotion. The artist used atmospheric perspective to create depth with light and blurrier backgrounds. The figures have faint halos to denote their divinity.

72: Birth of Venus

This painting depicts Venus, the goddess of love and beauty. According to the myth, she was born from Neptune’s sperm in the water and popped up out of a clam shell. She is depicted naked, representing her as pure or a virgin. This work marked a return to female nudity, which was generally considered bad unless the subject was Venus.

73: The Last Supper

This depicts Holy Thursday, the Thursday before Jesus dies, during Passover. This event is where the idea of the Eucharist originates, representing the drinking of Jesus's blood and eating his body. The scene captures the chaotic moment when Jesus predicts his betrayal by Judius (Judas). This is one of the most important parts of the Bible. The artist used linear perspective to create naturalistic depth. The event occurs just before Jesus is arrested and killed.

75: Sistine Chapel Ceiling and Altar Wall Frescoes

The ceiling frescoes depict stories from the Old Testament. Michelangelo worked on it for $4$ years for free under force. He was primarily a sculptor and even painted a scribe in the work to represent himself against the Pope. The chapel is used by cardinals to elect the Pope through a voting process. The chipmany (chimney) signals the result: black smoke means no majority, and white smoke means a Pope is chosen. Specific scenes include:

The Delphi Sibyl: A woman from the Old Testament telling of the coming of Jesus.
The Flood: An Old Testament story where God sends a flood to wash away evil and sins. Noah builds an arch (ark) to escape the destruction of the towns.
Last Judgement: Located on the altar wall, it depicts the saved being pulled to heaven and the damned being sent to hell. Jesus acts as the judge. Figures hold "attributes" representing how they were killed. The artist included a skinned person as a self-portrait, reflecting his anxiety about going to hell. Figures were originally painted naked, though someone else later painted clothes onto them.

76: School of Athens

This work depicts a gathering of ancient Greek philosophers, not Christians. Plato is shown pointing up toward the ideal, while Aristole points down toward the observable. The painting focuses on different perspectives and philosophies. It was commissioned by the Pope for his living quarters and uses allusionistic depth (illusionistic depth) through features like barrel vaults and coffins (coffers).

78: Entombment of Christ

This work features an emotional style wanted by Catholics, though its specific subject is ambiguous. It could be a deposition of descent, a lamnation/pietá, or an intombante (entombment). Because there is no cross depicted, the exact scene is unclear. It served as an altar piece in a wealthy family's house. It was designed to be interactive, allowing people to pray to Jesus while using the altar.

80: Venus of Urbino

This painting is described as objecting the subject. It features a dog, which was a symbol of a wealthy Venetian home. Though titled Venus (the goddess of beauty) later, the title allowed for the painting of a nude. The setting is a wealthy house with people looking into a chest. The subject is inviting the viewer to bed, which is interpreted as accepting the male gaze. The artist used glazing, applying approximately $10$ layers of transparent oil paint to make the image glow and enhance its beauty.

66: Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)

This altarpiece depicts the angel Gabriel telling the Virgin Mary she will have the son of God. It was a private commission for a wealthy house. Joseph is shown as a carpenter, which foreshadows the crucifixion. The Virgin Mary is in a walled garden, a symbol of purity and virginity referencing Adam and Eve. The patrons are included in the painting, shown looking into the contemporary setting.

68: The Arnolfini Portrait

This portrait represents a betrothal or the giving of property. A mirror in the background shows the reflection of the room and the artist himself. Around the mirror are little circles depicting the stations of the cross leading to the crucifixion. The painting suggests God is overlooking the bonding. The artist, Jan van Eyck, included the inscription "[Name] was here," making him the first to include such inocionality (intentionality/signature). The presence of Mandarin (oranges) suggests trade across cultures, specifically with China.

77: Isenheim Altarpiece

This was an altarpiece used for prayer in a hospital for people suffering from ergotism, also known as St. Anthony’s Fire. Ergotism is a disease from a fungus that causes hallucinations (noting that LSD comes from this). The monks who ran the hospital suggested that if St. Anthony made it through his trials, the patients could too.

Closed View: Features St. Sebastian (a martyr), St. Anthony, the Crucifixion (with a white Virgin Mary and pink Mary Magdalen), John the Baptist (with a lamb and cross), and the Lamentation/Tomb.
Open View: Features the Annunciation (Gabriel telling Mary she is pregnant), an angel choir singing in a church, the Nativity (birth of Jesus), and the Resurrection (Jesus rising to heaven).

79: Allegory of Law and Grace

This is a woodcut, which is a stamp used for mass copying. Produced during the Protestant Reformation and associated with Lutheran beliefs, it attacks the Catholic religion. The theme is salvation by faith alone (L).

Law: Depicts the $10$ commandments and a man being stabbed and chased, making the law look punishing.
Grace: Depicts Jesus saying to follow Him to go to heaven. The Holy Spirit is shown as a dove. The piece is designed to depict Lutheranism as the better path.

74: Adam and Eve by Albrecht Dürer

This is a copy of a metal engraving. It reflects the belief that there were $4$ different types of liquids (humors) in the body. When these humors are out of balance, people would drain blood. The $4$ humors are represented in the work because they were originally equal before the apple was eaten, after which they went out of balance. Dürer included himself in the work to emphasize the importance of the occupation of the artist. The style is a return to the classical style, blending Christianity with Greek influences.

83: Hunters in the Snow

This painting shows a group of hunters returning from a hunt with no food. The scene is set in the Alpes (Alps) but includes a town in Italy, reflecting the artist's experiences in Italy and the Italian Renaissance. It uses atmospheric perspective to create depth. The context is the Little Ice Age. It was commissioned by a merchant who liked depictions of normal people.

81: Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza

This was made for a book for Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire, who was part of the Habsburg royal family. The Viceroyalty of Spain run by Antonio de Mendoza oversaw "New Spain" after the overthrow of the Aztec empire by Hernan Cortez. The book's function was to tell the history of the Aztecs. The frontispiece features an X shape separating the city into $4$ parts. It illustrates the foundation theory that the city should be settled wherever a golden eagle lands on a cactus. It also depicts Aztec warriors fighting.

90: Angel with Arquebus

This painting shows an angel with feathered wings holding an arquebus (a type of gun). This was used in New Spain to establish authority and signify respect for God’s order. It combines different cultures. The military elements (gun), wealth (dress), and religion (wings) combined with a feather hat representing Inkan royalty show how Spain asserted authority over America. The belief in the Last Judgement suggested angels might shoot you in your sleep if you didn't believe in God.

94: Screen with Siege of Belgrade and Hunting Scene

This colonial work connects Asian and Spanish cultures. It is a Japanese biamboo (folding screen) decorated with Mexican enconchado (pearl inlays). It depicts an event in Central Europe: a battle between the Holy Roman Empire (Habsburgs) and the Ottomans, which the Habsburgs won. The work was inspired by Spanish trade with Japan. It was commissioned by the Golzonalez (Gonzalez) family for a viceroy's house and was used to separate different parts of the home.

95: The Virgin Mary of Guadalupe

This represents the appearance of the Virgin Mary in Mexico. Juan Diego found her in the mountains. She asked for a church to be built on the hill of Tepayac, which was a former shrine to an Aztec goddess. The bishop, Zumárraga, did not believe Juan Diego until he opened his cloak to reveal an image of Mary along with Castilian roses, which were not native to Spain. This work combines cultures and transformed the site of an Aztec goddess into a Marian apparition shrine.

97: Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo

This is a Casta painting, a genre used to show the various "casts" or racial mixes in society. It depicts a mixed-race child of an Indian and a Spaniard, accompanied by a servant child. This "trinity of family" shows the emotion of racial mixing and was sent back to Spain to show what life was like in the New World.

82: Il Gesù

Architecture: Built for the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) during the Protestant Reformation. It embodies the goals of the Council of Trent and was used by Jesuits as propaganda. It brought back Greek elements to represent diverse cultures.
Interior (Triumph in the Name of Jesus): This is an immersive ceiling piece that looks like heaven is coming down. The center features the IHS monogram of Jesus. Figures appear to spill around the name of Jesus as if the ceiling opened to the sky. The message tells the faithful they will be saved to heaven or damned to hell.
Nave: Focused on the altar, with Last Judgement scenes placed over it. This focus was something the Protestant Reformation had removed but the Catholics brought back.

85: Calling of Saint Matthew

Saint Matthew was a tax collector, which was considered bad, but Christ wanted to help him. Light is shown coming from God and going toward Matthew. Peter is shown, representing the foundation of the church; the message is that one must go through Peter (the church) to get to Jesus. This encourages the viewer to pray and follow Jesus like Matthew did. The painting uses a modern setting.

89: Ecstacy of Saint Teresa

This Baroque piece depicts Saint Teresa experiencing a moment of joy (ecstasy). An angel is shown plunging a spear into her heart, representing her feeling the love of God. This occurred shortly after her canonization. The Baroque style used detailed art to counter the Protestant Reformation, emphasizing that the relationship with God should be personal. The Holy Spirit is shown as a dove. The church utilized gold and expensive art to create this personal experience, utilizing a window for lighting effects.

91: Las Meninas

This painting features a young princess (the indendiez) being dressed. The painter, Velázquez, included himself in the background. It was commissioned by the King and Queen for the royal court. The dog represents wealth. The painting signifies the transition of the artist into an important individual; the artist is shown holding a key that opens all doors, marking their historical importance.

88: San Carlo alla Quattro Fontana

The Triantarians (Trinitarians), a group that worked to free slaves in the New World, asked Francesco Borromini to build this. Because they had no money, Borromini made a complex design focusing on geometry. The triangle represents the Holy Trinity. It is based on the Sistine Chapel and features a medallion in front that used to have a fresco by a priest. This work is considered a leader in modern architecture.

86: Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici

This piece is part of a cycle of $22$ paintings commissioned by Marie de' Medici to show off her life. It depicts Zeus (represented by an eagle) and Hera (represented by a peacock) as gods bringing down her portrait to King Henri IV. Seeing how good she looks, he falls in love. A personification of France (as a woman) pushes the King to marry her. Cupid and Hymen (god of marriage) are also present to facilitate the union.

87: Self-Portrait with Saskia

This is an etching by Rembrandt depicting himself and his wife. It is notable for its use of actual depth and for being a new way for an artist to focus on and depict themselves. It marks the first time an artist made themselves the primary focus in such a manner.

93: Palace of Versailles

Commissioned by Louis XIV, the "Sun King," this palace served as his home. It contains $700$ rooms, $2153$ windows, and covers $67,000\,ft^2$. This luxury demonstrates his status as an absolutist monarch with total control. He famously stated, "I am the state." Royal attendants lived there to serve him.

Hall of Mirrors: This is where the Treaty of Versailles was eventually signed. The King would wake up and walk through this hall to diferentes functional rooms. The layout follows cardinal directions so the mirrors reflect the sunrise. The palace was moved away from Paris for the King's protection, especially after protesters invaded.

98: The Tête-à-Tête from Marriage à la Mode

This tells the story of Lord Squanderfield, an aristocrat who has lost his money and enters an arranged marriage with the daughter of a wealthy merchant to get money.

The Characters: A character named Silver Tongue is trying to steal the girl and she cheats with him. The Lord has a black spot on his neck representing syphillus (syphilis) caught from prostitutes. An accountant is shown stressed because they are squandering their wealth.
The Plot: The Lord comes home from being with prostitutes while the wife has been partying and having sex with Silver Tongue. There is phallic imagery, such as a broken sword, representing "masculinity ripped." Eventually, everyone cheats and ends up with syphilis. Silver Tongue kills the Lord and is subsequently killed for the act. The wife kills herself after learning of Silver Tongue's death. Their baby also has syphilis. The overall point is that rich families are messed up and not perfect.

92: Woman Holding a Balance

This painting by Vermeer shows a woman performing a basic task, but it serves as an allegory for the Last Judgment. In the background, there is a painting of Jesus judging the living and the dead. The act of balancing symbolizes the weighing of one's soul—balancing good deeds against sins (specifically the sin of greed). The religious meaning is hidden within the mundane scene.

96: Fruit and Insects

This piece by Rachel Ruysch shows a scientific curiosity. Her father was a biologist, and she had access to a microscope to look at real specimens. The work is a Christian piece using fruit: the grapes and wheat symbolize the Eucharist (wine as blood and bread as body of Christ). A snail represents the Virgin Mary. The painting depicts various elements that would not all be happening at the same time in nature. It reflects the wealth associated with fruit and flowers.