Introduction to kinesiology unit 1,2,3,4 notes review exam
Unit 1:
Intro to Kinesiology:
Kinesiology: systematic study of physiological, psychological, and sociological aspects of human movement and how it can be optimized.
Discipline of Kinesiology: exercise physiology and anatomy, biomechanics, historical aspects of sport, fitness training
Twin problem of physical inactivity and obesity: sedentarism and poor diet underlay the twin problems
To fight these problems:
lifestyles changes must be made
Support to school/community physical activity programs
Enlighten public health policy
Anatomical Planes:
Universal orientation and reference
Anatomical position:
Anatomical planes relate to positions in space and are at right angles to one another
Upright
Face and feet pointing forward
Arms at the side
Forearm full supinated (palms forward)
Describing position and movement
Described in terms of the anatomical plane through which it occurs and the anatomical axes around which it rotates
Transverse
Top and bottom
Divides the body into superior and inferior segments
Sagittal
Left and right
Dividends the body into medial and lateral segments
Frontal (coronal)
Front and back
Divides the body into anterior and posterior segments
Anatomical Axes:
Anatomical axes: used to describe how rotation of the muscle and bones take place
Longitudinal (polar)
Is in a “north-south’ relationship to the anatomical position
Horizontal (bilateral)
Is in an “east-west” relationship to the anatomical position
Antero-posterior axis
Is in a “front-to-back” relationship to the anatomical position
Anatomical position:
Superior (cranial):
Toward the hear end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
E.g the head is superior to the abdomen
Interior(caudal):
Away form the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
E.g the navel is inferior to the chin
Ventral (anterior):
Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
E.g the breastbone is anterior to the spine
Dorsal(posterior):
Toward or at the back of the body; behind
E.g the heart is posterior to the breastbone
Proximal:
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
E.g the elbow is proximal to the wrist
Distal:
Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
E.g the knee is distal to the thigh
Superficial:
Toward or at the body surface
E.g the skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles
Deep (internal):
Away from the body surface; more internal
E.g the lungs are deep to the skin
Medial:
Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
E.g the heart is medial to the arm
Lateral:
Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
E.g the arms are lateral to the chest
Movement terms:
Flexion
Joint angle decreases
Extension
Joint angle increases
Abduction
Away from body
Adduction
Toward the body
Plantar Flexion
Point your toes
Dorsiflexion
Bring the top of you foot closer to your shin
Supination
Palm is facing forward
Pronation
Palm is facing backward
Inversion
Standing on outer edge of your foot
Eversion
Standing on inner edge of your foot
Internal rotation
Turning a body part outward from the midline
External rotation
Turning a body part inward from the midline
Elevation
Movement in upward direction
Depression
Movement in downward direction
Circumduction
Combination of flexion, abduction, extension, adduction
The Musculoskeletal System
Human skeleton is made of 206 bones that takes up about 14% of the body weight
However there are about 300 bones at birth, but many bones fuse together as they age
Bones are made up of bone cells, fat cells, and blood vessels
Compared to other systems, the human skeletal system is extremely hard and durable
Bones are mainly composed of the mineral calcium ( in various forms)
People with diet low in calcium may find their bones becoming increasing britte and breakable (major concern for elders; osteoporosis)
The human skeleton is generally divided into two main parts:
The axial skeleton in orange
Compose mostly of the vertebral column (spine), rib cage, and the skull
Where most of the core muscles originate
Core muscles help stablize and support the axial skeleton
Plus providing proper posture and alignment
The appendicular skeleton in Green
Moveable limbs and their supporting structures (girdles; scapula, clavicle)
Six major regions:
Pectoral girdles
Arms and forearms
Hands
Pelvis
Thighs and legs
Feet and ankles
Bone Landmarks
A landmark is a ridge, bump, groove, depression, or prominence on the surface of the bone that serves as a guide to the location of other body structures
Skeletal Biology
Function of bones
Support
Bear wright of tissues (muscle, organ, fat, connective tissue)
Movement
Leverage created by contraction of connecting muscles
Blood supply
Creation of blood cells in marrow of bones (hematopoiesis)
Protection
Encasing vital organs
Mineral supply
Inorganic compounds released into blood as needed
Classification of bones
The bones of the human skeleton are diverse in size and shape
These varied characteristics are indicative of each bones function
Bone types are based mainly on their shape
5 Bone types
Long
Longer than they are wide
Shaft+2 ends
Includes most limb bones
I.e phalanges, femur, humerus
Short
Small and thick
Roughly cube shaped
I.e. carpels, tarsals
Flat
Flat, thin, with ”parallel” surfaces
Usually curved
i.e. Ribs, Skull, sternum, scapula
Irregular
Basically all bones of various shapes that do not fit under other categories
i.e. vertebrae, pelvic bones
Sesamoid
Short bones formed within a tendon
Act to alter direction of pull of tendon
i.e. knee cap, pisiform
Anatomy of a long bone
As one of the main bones of the skeleton, our Long Bones are quite complex structures
Incorporate many components, each with its own function
Epiphysis
ends of long bone – articulating surfaces (forming a joint)
nutrients from joint capsule
red/yellow marrow
compact bone exterior / cancellous bone interior
i.e. the ends of the femur
Diaphysis
“shaft”
marrow filled cavity (medullary cavity)
compact bone exterior– dense bone that can withstand the the greatest forces along its length
Vascular, supplied by arteries/veins
Epiphyseal Line
remnant of bone generating cartilage of child’s bone
appears after epiphyseal plate fuses to the rest of the bone (growth stops, late teens/early adulthood)
Epiphyseal Plate
“Growth” plate
The plates forms a gap that will get filled up and repeats the process
Bone growth
found in long bones of children and adolescents
Cancellous (Trabecular) Bone
epiphyseal interior
Less dense than compact bone (reduces overall mass of bone)
Network of trabeculae (“beams”) aligned along stress lines,
Dynamic: structure changes in response to stresses (weight, posture, physical activity)
Compact (Cortical) Bone
80% of Human skeleton (by weight)
dense bone
interwoven matrix of bone pillars (called osteons)
Provides strength and rigidity to the bone
Periosteum
regenerative sheath (outer layer) for all bones - with a few exceptions
houses fibroblasts and osteoblasts involved in bone maintenance and growth
vascular (channel for blood supply in and out of marrow)
offers some support (but minimal)
Connection point for tendons (muscle-bone) and helps spread the force across the surface
Articular Cartilage
smooth, slippery, insensitive, and bloodless surface covering ends of long bones
cushions/absorbs stress of opposing bone in a synovial joint during movement
Medullary Cavity
deepest part of the bone
“hollow” soft core of diaphysis
Red Bone Marrow - contains Stem Cells that differentiate into red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
Yellow Bone Marrow - usually a high concentration of fat stored here
Also has Stem Cells that differentiate into osteoblasts and osteoclasts (bone remodeling)
Also involved in formation of cartilage
Bone Formation
Chemical composition (by weight):
~30% organic compounds – collagen (protein used for building trabeculae), marrow, bone cells…
~60% inorganic compounds – minerals
The rest is primarily water
Bone development is a dynamic process of integration of these components into a matrix
Occurs through three processes:
Osteogenesis - the formation of non-mineral collagen (protein) matrix called trabeculae
Ossification- the deposition of inorganic hydroxyapatite onto matrix
a combination of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium fluoride and calcium hydroxide
Bone remodeling - healing and maintenance processes of the skeleton
Bones are dynamic – a living tissue
Remodeling
Regenerate just like most other body tissues
Recycle 5% – 7% of our bone mass on a weekly basis
Complete new bone mass every 7 – 10 years.
This gives our bones the ability to repair / adapt to stresses.
Remodeling is the result of the action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts.
(to remember the difference...osteoBlasts build and osteoClasts crush)
Bone Injuries
Causes:
Trauma
Types of forces applied determine where and how the bone will fracture
Many different classification of fractures with varying degrees severity
Other factors:
Weakened bone strength
Eg. osteoporosis due to old age increases susceptibility for fractures
Reduction of a fracture assist /speeds up healing process
Types of fractures:
Greenstick fracture
Incomplete
One side of the bone is fractured (usually because of tension), the other side is just bent (compressed)
Common in children
Because their bones are softer
Have more organic material (collagen) and less inorganic material (minerals) for strong support
Transverse(simple) fracture
Partial fracture through bone
Little to no displacement of fractured ends occurs
Spiral fracture
Usually a jagged break
Occurs when torsion (twisting) load is applied to an extremity that is firmly planted on the ground
Compression fracture
Usually occurs in the vertebrae
Bone is crushed due to compression
Inner scaffolding is not strong enough to support weight/withstand forces
More common in those suffering from Osteoporosis
Comminuted fracture
Occurs when a very high amount of force is applied (high impact)
2+ fragments break off
Common in car accidents
Compound (open) fracture
Broken bone breaks through skin
Complicated because it increased risks of infection
Depression Fracture
Broken bone pressed inward, deep to the normal surface of the bone
Common in skull injuries, often caused by blunt force trauma
Impacted fracture
Caused by impact of bone on bone
Fragments tend to be forced into each other, and surrounding tissues
More common in shoulder and hip due to falls
Increased severity with osteoporosis
Can be treated with hip resurfacing and traditional total hip replacement
Avulsion fracture
Force from tendon or ligament pulls off a piece of the bone
Can occur anywhere in the body
In adults, tendons and ligaments often damaged first as a result of high forces
In children, we see avulsions near the growth plate, where bones are weaker and still developing
Treating fractures
Pain
Reduction (resetting)
Immobilization (mechanical support using casts, splints, screws, plates etc)
Time
Special considerations
Surgery, infection control
Factors affecting the healing process
Systemic factors
Age
Children heal more quickly than adults; healing potentials is decreased with advanced age
Nutrition
Poor nutrition and/or vitamin deficiency adversely affects healing
General health
Chronic illness depresses healing response (diabetes, anemia, systemic infection)
Generalized atherosclerosis
Decreased blood flow = slowed healing
Hormonal factors
Growth hormone enhances healing; corticosteroids slow healing
Drugs
Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (eg. ibuprofen) slow healing
Smoking
Decreases healing through vasoconstriction （血管收缩）
Local Factors
Degree of local trauma/bone loss
Comminuted fracture with more soft tissue injury is slower to heal
Area of bone affected
Metaphyseal fractures heal faster than diaphyseal
Abnormal bone
Infection
Tumor
Irradiated
Slower to heal
Degree of immobilization of fracture
Motion at site delay healing
Disruption of vascular supply
Delay healing
Osteoporosis
A medical condition where bones become weak and brittle
age/sex related
Bone resorption is greater than bone deposit
Results in decreased bone mass (more porous and lighter)
Vertebrae and hip become very vulnerable to injury
Risk factors
Aging women (decreasing estrogen)雌激素
Insufficient exercise/overtraining
Diet low in calcium / magnesium and protein
Smoking
Hormonal conditions / related drugs
RED-S
The Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport
It is the result of insufficient caloric intake and/or excessive energy expenditure (支出）
Consequences of this condition can alter many physiological systems
Metabolism
Menstrual function
Bone health
Immunity
Protein synthesis
Cardiovascular and psychological health
The Female Athlete Triad is still considered to be a contributing factor in developing RED-S
Describes syndrome that increases risk for female athletes for higher incidence of bone fractures
Due to susceptibility of three closely linking conditions
Menstrual dysfunction
Low bone density
Disordered eating
Low energy status in physically active women or men
Signs/ symptoms
Weight loss
Fatigue and decreased ability to concentrate
Stress fractures
No periods or irregular periods
Other injuries
Eating disorders
Bone Landmarks
Often an area of great importance, in terms of human movement
The origin or insertion points of out muscles
Inclues: epicondyle, crest, fossa, trochanter, spine, facet, tubercle. head , sulcus, tuberosity, line, foramen, sinus, process, meatus
Type of bone landmarks
Landmarks of articulation (joins)
Condyle
Smooth, rounded knob
Ex. medial condyle of the femur
Head
Prominent expanded end of a bone, sometimes
Ex. Head of femur
Facet
Smooth, flat, slightly curved (concave or convex)
Ex. Superior Articular Facet of the Sacrum
Elevated landmarks
Process
Any bony prominence of a bone
Ex. Coracoid process of the scapula
Tuberosity
Rough raised surface of a bone
Ex. deltoid tuberosity of the humerus
Tubercle
Smal, rounded process
Greater tubercle of humerus
Epicondyle
Projection of bone, found superior to a condyle
“Epi” means on, upon, above
Ex. lateral epicondyle of the femur
Trochanter
Massive process, unique to the Femur
Ex. Greater Trochanter
Malleolus
Projection or process at the distal end of the fibula or tibia at the level of the ankle
Spine
Sharp, slender or narrow process
Spine of the scapula
Crest
Narrow ridge
Ex. iliac crest of the pelvis
Depressions or flat surfaces
Fossa
Shallow depression
Ex. mandibular fossa
Fovea
Small pit in a bone
Ex. fovea capitis of the femur
Sulcus
Groove for a tenton, nerve or blood vessel
Ex. intertubercular sulcus of the humerus
Spaces or opening
Foramen
Hole through a bone, usually round
Ex. vertebral foramen
Meatus
Tubular passage or tunnel through a bone
Ex. external acoustic meatus of the ear
Sinus
Spaces or cavity within a bone
Ex. frontal sinus of the skull
supra/infra (above/below) -> Superior/Inferior
greater/lesser (larger/smaller)
Inter (inbetween)
Meta (after)
The Articular System
Joints are classified according to their structure (what they are made of) or their function (the type and extent of movement they permit).
The structural classification recognizes three main types of joints:
Fibrous joints,
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
Articular cartilage
Located on the ends of bones that come in contact with on another
Joint Capsule
Consists of the synovial membrane and fibrous capsule.
Joint Cavity
Filled with synovial fluid, which acts as a lubricant for the joint
Bursae ( Bursa is singular)
Small fluid sacs found at the friction points
Intrinsic ligaments
Thick bands of fibrous connective tissue that help thicken and reinforce the joint capsule
Extrinsic ligaments
Separate from the joint capsule and help to reinforce the joint
Types of joints
Ball-and-socket (spheroidal) joints.
The “ball” at one bone fits into the “socket” of another, allowing movement around three axes
Gliding (or plane or arthrodial) joints
This type connects flat or slightly curved bone surfaces that glide against one another
Hinge (ginglymus) joints.
A convex portion of one bone fits into a concave portion of another (movement in one plane). The joint between the ulna and the humerus is an example
Pivot (or trochoid) joints.
Rounded joint of one bone fits into a groove of another
Joint between the first two vertebrae in the neck, that allows the rotation of the head
Saddle Joints
Allow movement in two planes (but not rotation like a ball-and-socket joint)
A key one is found at the carpo-metacarpal articulation of the thumb
Ellipsoid joints.
This type of synovial joint also allows movement in two planes.
The wrist is an example of an ellipsoid joint
Joint Injuries
Loss of functionality of tissues surrounding and stabilizing a joint
Could be ligaments, cartilage, bursae or bones
Elastic properties of tissue can be compromised by the forces acting upon or bodies during physical activity
Chronic injuries like osteoarthritis or bursitis
Acute injuries like ligaments sprains
Fibrous tissues in our joints
Mostly made of collagen, a strong protein found throughout the human body
Ligaments
Thick bands of fibrous tissue connecting bone - bone
Cartilage
Smooth and firm surface of fibrous tissue located between the bones to reduce friction and provide cushioning
Bursae
Small flat, fluid filled sacs at high friction points between tendons, ligaments, and bones
Mechanisms of Injury
Acceleration/Deceleration as a result of movement or impact
Fatigue/Overuse due to repetitive motions, overtraining and/or insufficient recovery
Weakness/Imbalance of muscles that move and support the joint
Instability of joint due to weakness in ligaments, or injury to nearby ligaments
Types of joint injuries
Bursitis
Because of their function, Bursae undergo a lot of wear and tear due to repetitive motion
Bursa can become inflamed (itis)
Common in shoulder, elbow and hip but can occur anywhere where these structures are exposed to repetitive motion
Risk increases with age
Treatments
Rest, to avoid further trauma
Often resolve itself
Physiotherapy to strengthen surrounding muscles to support the join
Re-inflammation is common
Cartilage Damage
Damage to the connective tissue found at the articulating surfaces of the bones
Cartilage of the knee is often susceptible in sports with vigorous lateral movements (basketball, football, etc)
Treatments
Often repaired through Arthroscopic surgery
A few small incisions are made to allow access to the inner joint
Iliotibial Band Syndrome (IT Band)
The IT band runs down the lateral aspect of the thigh from the Ilium to the Tibia
Thick band of connective tissue that attaches Tensor Fasciae Latae and Gluteus Maximus muscles to the Tibia
Helps to stabilize the knee (when extended), also helps with hip abduction and flexion
Overuse injury due to tightness of IT Band, rubbing on Femur creates inflammation at the knee or hip (common in runners, cyclists etc.)
Treatment
Rest
exercise/orthotics to encourage hip & knee alignments
Increase flexibility of the IT Band, Tensor Fasciae Latae and Gluteus Maximus
Sprains
Due to required function of ligaments, they are very resistant to stretching, making them prone to tearing
Occurs when a ligament is overstretched and have a scale to indicate their severity (1, 2, 3, degree)
The avascular nature (limited blood supply) of the ligaments discourages natural healing
Once one ligaments is damaged, the other in the area have to try to compensate for the instability and often cannot withstand forces applied in a new direction
Treatment
Varies
The first 24-48 hours after the injury is important treatment and rest period
Standard steps for treatment follow P.I.E.R (or R.I.C.E)
Pressure, Ice, Elevation, rest
Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation)
First degree sprain
Microscopic tearing
Minimal pain
Range of motion may be limited next day
Strength may be affected
No visible discolouration/deformity
No audible sound
Might be able to continue with normal function
Secondary degree sprain
Significant tearing of ligaments
Extremely painful
Large amount of swelling
Limiting motion (30-80% decrease)
Strength loss
Cannot continue with normal function
May be able to feel a defect in the ligament through the skin (bump, hole)
Audible snap or pop
Third degree sprain
Complete tear
Initially no pain but a lot later
Loss of range of motion (80-100% decrease)
Complete loss of strength
Massive swelling and discoloration of surrounding area
Palpable and visible deformity
Audible snap or pop
Ligament replacement surgery required
Common knee ligament injuries
Any of the ligaments in the knees can be compromised through physical activity or impact.
Most common are injuries to the:
Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)
Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL)
Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL)
Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL)
Depending on the severity of the sprain, surgery may be required to repair/replace the ligament
Unit 2: Muscular system and energy production
Components of The Musculoskeletal System
Consists of bones, joints, and muscles that provide form, support, and stability to a body, thus giving humans (and many other animal species) the ability to move.
Comprised of:
The body’s bones, skeletal muscles, and connective tissue that binds them together.
Skeletal muscle fiber connects to bones directly through tough tissue fibres, called tendons.
The bones themselves are bound tightly together with other bones through ligaments.
Cartilage tissue at the ends of bones prevents the bones from grinding against one another.
Types of muscle tissues(shortens during contraction):
Smooth muscle
Surrounding the body’s internal organs, including the blood vessels, hair follicles, and the urinary, genital, and digestive tracts, are smooth muscles. Smooth muscle tissue contracts more slowly than skeletal muscles, but can remain contracted for longer periods of time. They are also involuntary.
Cardiac muscle (heart)
As the name suggests, cardiac muscles are found in only one place in the body—the heart. They are responsible for creating the action that pumps blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Cardiac muscles are involuntary muscles because they are not controlled consciously, and are instead directed to act by the autonomic nervous system.
Skeletal muscle (muscles that help us move)
These muscles are the type of muscles that are attached to the bones (by tendons and other tissues).
They are the most prevalent muscle type in the human body (640 of them!!!!)—they comprise 30% to 40% of human body weight.
Skeletal muscles are “voluntary”—humans have conscious control over their skeletal muscles; that is, the brain can tell them what to do.
Skeletal muscle tissue is referred to as striated, or striped, because of its appearance under a microscope as a series of alternating light and dark stripes.
Types of contraction
Concentric contraction
Shortening
Eccentric contraction
Lengthening
Isometric contraction
Static
How Muscles are Named:
Major muscle groups
Anterior:
The quadriceps group, Quads
The abdominals, Abs
The pectoral muscles, Pec
Posterior:
Muscles Pull
They Never Push
Agonist and Antagonist Muscle Pairs:
Skeletal muscles are typically arranged as opposing pairs
The muscle primarily responsible for movement of a body part is referred to as the agonist muscle
The muscle that counteracts the agonist muscle, lengthening when the agonist muscle contracts, is called the antagonist muscle
Movements around joints are also assisted by additional muscle
The muscles that adds extra force to a movement or help to stabilize the joint from dislocation are called synergist muscles.
The muscles that help to hold a bone in place during a movement are called fixator muscles.
Opposing muscles and muscle groups:
The Neuromuscular System
Origin: the more stationary of the bones where the muscles attaches to
Insertion: the point there the muscle attaches to the bones that is moved the most
When the biceps are contracting the forearms are pulled towards the shoulder (origin)
The insertion is on the radius (forearm bone), and it is moved in the contraction
Muscle attachment:
Indirectly (via tendons)
Most common
Directly (when the outer membrane of the muscle attaches to to outer membrane of the bone
Components of muscles
Muscles
Muscle tissues
Made of bunch of layers of muscles fascicles
Muscle fascicles (bundles of smaller structures)
Muscle fibers
Contractile portion of the muscle
Cell of the muscle
Myofibrils
Contain myofilaments
responsible for muscle’s ability to contract and relax
Sarcomeres
Main proteins are Myosin(thick) and Actin(thin)
Others are Tropomyosin and troponin
Myofilaments
Unit 3: The Cardiovascular system and Respiratory system
The Structure Of The Cardiovascular System
Maycardium
Specialized muscle tissue (cardiac muscle) that forms the heart.
The heart is considered a “double pump” that is divided into right and left sides
Pulmonary circulation
The main function of the right side of the heart is to pump deoxygenated blood, which has just returned from the body, to the lungs to get oxygenated
Systemic circulation
The role of the left side of the heart is to pump oxygenated blood, which has just returned from the lungs, to the rest of the body
Arteries
Carries blood away from the heart
In systemic circulation, carries oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart towards body tissues
In pulmonary circulation, arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right side
Veins
Carries blood towards the heart
Systemic circulation, carry deoxygenated blood towards the right side of the heart from body tissues
In pulmonary circulation, carries oxygenated blood towards the left side of the heart from the lungs
Arterioles
Vessels in the blood circulation system that branch out from arteries and lead to capillaries, where gas exchange occurs. Surrounded by smooth muscle, arterioles are primary site of vascular resistance
Capillaries
Smallest of the blood vessels, capillaries help to enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients and waste substances between blood and tissues of the body
Venules
Vessels in the blood circulation system that converge from capillaries and lead to veins. Surrounded by smooth muscle, venules are another cause of vascular resistance
Atria and Ventricles
Heart is made of 4 chambers
Upper chambers are called atria
Lower chambers are called ventricles
Blood is received into the atria and pushed out of from the ventricles
Steps of flow of blood through the heart
Blood enters the superior and inferior vena cava through the right atrium
Enters the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve
Blood is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve and out through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs for gas exchange
Blood returns to the heart through pulmonary veins to the left atrium
Passes through the bicuspid valve and enters into the left ventricle
Blood is then pumped out through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and throughout the systemic circulation
The Skeletal Muscle Pump
Low pressure within the veins causes a problem for cardiovascular system
Blood may not return to the atria with enough volume to ensure a smooth flow of blood
When sitting for too long (overseas flight) can cause deep vein thrombosis, and potentially deadly condition
Skeletal muscle pump aids in the return of blood back to the heart through the veins
With each contraction of the skeletal muscle, blood is pushed back to the heart
Composition of Blood
Plasma 55%
90% water
7% plasma proteins
3% other (acid, salts)
Formed elements 45%
>99% red blood cells (erythrocytes)
<1% white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes)
Systolic blood pressure
refers to the maximum pressure observed in the arteries during the contraction phase of the ventricles (e.g., 120 mmHg).
Diastolic blood pressure
is the minimum pressure observed in the arteries during the relaxation phase of the ventricle (e.g., 80 mmHg).
The Functioning of the Cardiovascular System
The Heart’s electrical conduction system
The cardiac muscles cells are excitable, meaning that with electrical stimulation, they will all contract (known as syncytium)
The specialized tissues in areas of the heart are important in regulation and coordination of the electrical activity, they are:
Sinoatrial node (SA node)
Found in the right atrium
Where electrical signals are initiated
All called the pacemaker
Atrioventricular node (AV Node)
Transmits the electrical signal from atria into the ventricles to a region that runs down the ventricular septum (tissue that separate the two ventricles; the bundle of His or the atrioventricular bundle)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
P - QRS - T
P (atrial depolarization) wave
Contraction of atria to push blood into ventricles
QRS (Ventricular depolarization) wave
Ventricle contracts to push blood into arteries
While the atria repolarize (can’t be measured using ECG)
T (ventricular repolarization) wave
Ventricular repolarize (active transport of Na+ and K+)
Recovery of ventricle to prepare for next contraction
Bradycardia and Tachycardia
Regular aerobic exercise results in improvements in the efficiency of the cardiovascular system at rest and during exercise
Bradycardia (心动过缓)
Easily observed adaptations that occurs in training
Characterized by heart rate of 60 beats per min or less at rest
Tachycardia (心动过速)
Heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute at rest
Lower resting heart rake is a indication of an athletic or strong heart
Cardiovascular Dynamics
Changes occurred in the cardiovascular system. The heart and the blood vessels constantly adapt to accommodate the ever-changing requirements of the body during exercise
Factors of cardiovascular dynamics
Heart Rate (HR)
Number of contraction cycles in one min
Stroke Volume (SV)
Volume of blood ejected from left ventricle in one beat
Blood Pressure (BP)
Force exerted by the blood on walls of arteries
Cardiac output (Q)
Volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle in one minute, measured in litres (L)
Units: min/L
Q = SV X HR
Others
Distribution of blood flow
What regions of the body receive blood as a priority
Oxygen consumption (VO2)
The maximum volume of oxygen the body can use in one minute, per kilogram of body weight at sea level
Effects of Training
People who have been training, there stroke volume will increase
Heart rate can be lowered while producing same cardiac output
Lower heart rates = cardiac muscles are contracting at lower intensity
Muscle work less = lasts longer = you live longer
Heart Disease
Coronary circulation
System of vessels that supply essential materials via blood to the heart muscles itself
Narrowing or blockage of blood vessels restricts the flow of blood to the heart muscle
Heart attack (myocardial infarction) happens when blood flow to section of heart muscle becomes blocked due to plaque buildup or other reasons
Coronary artery disease (atherosclerosis)
Type of heart attack involving narrowing of coronary arteries resulting from accumulation of hard deposits of cholesterol on the lining of the blood vessels
Structure of the respiratory system
Function of the respiratory system
Supply O2 to the blood
Remove CO2 from the blood
Regulate blood pH
External respiration
External respiration refers to the processes that occur within the lungs involving the exchange of O2 and CO2
Internal respiration
Internal respiration refers to the exchange of gasses at the tissue level, where O2 is delivered and CO2 is removed
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the process in which the cells use O2 to generate ATP in the mitochondria of cells
There Are Two Main Zones Of The Respiratory System
Conductive zone
Transport filtered air to the lungs
Consists of
Mouth
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Primary/secondary bronchi
Tertiary/terminal bronchioles
Respiratory zone
Where gas exchange occurs between inspired air and the blood
Bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
The Mechanics of Breathing
Combination of inspiration and expiration together is known as “ventilation”
Inspiration
Active process
Requiring the contraction of various respiratory muscle
Expenditure significant amounts of energy
Air flows into the lungs due to increased lung volume following the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscle
Air is expelled from the lungs due to relaxation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscle
Expiration
May be passive (quiet breathing; not much energy is needed)
May be active (forced breathing)
Control of Ventilation
Breathing is the result from the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of inspiratory muscle and the expiratory muscles. The contraction of muscles is dependent on stimulation from the central nervous system (CNS)
Aspects of breathing (rate, volume, concentration of gases) are associated with
Need of O2
Metabolic processes
Muscle activity
Production of CO2
Control of breathing is very complex, involves different forms of feedback system, specialized sensory systems to the neural control centres within the brain
Gas Exchange
Each person has a average of 300 million alveolar sacs, each surrounded by a web of capillaries
Structure of the alveolar sacs increases the surface area for gas exchange to occur
The same average person has up to 200 square metres of alveolar membrane to permit gas exchange in and out of the blood
Surface area of a tennis court
Walls of each capillaries are one cell thick
Very short distance for gases to diffuse
Lung volume measurements
Tidal volume (TV)
Volume of air inhaled/exhaled normally at rest
Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
Volume of air that can be forcibly be blown out after full inspiration
IRV + TV + ERV
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Maximal volume that can be inhaled from end of regular inhalation
IRV + TV
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Maximal volume of air that can be exhaled from the end of a regular exhalation
Residual Volume (RV)
Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation
ERV + RV
Total Lung Capacity
The volume in the lungs at maximal inflation
IRV + TV + ERV + RV
Diffusion
Primary method of gas exchange in lungs and tissue
Movement of gas from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
Only occurs if a difference in concentration exists
Difference is called a concentration gradient
Concentration O2 is less than concentration in atmosphere
O2 wants to come in to the body
Concentration of CO2 is greater than concentration in atmosphere
Co2 wants to leave the body
Concentration of O2 and CO2 is measured in Partial Pressures
To determine the partial pressures of O2 and CO2
Partial pressures are calculated based on barometric pressure and the fraction of O2 & CO2 in the atmosphere
Partial pressure O2 (PO2) in atmospheric at sea level
159.1 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 in venous (deoxygenated) blood in are bodies
40 mmHg
Factors affecting Diffusion
Size of the concentration gradient
As difference in partial pressures between a gas inside and outside the body increase, the rate of diffusion also increases
Thickness of barriers between membranes
Thinner the barrier, high the rate of diffusion
Gas molecules can pass through the membrane easier
Surface area of the membranes
More surface area = more diffusion can happen as the alveolar structure allows for a high surface area to be exposed to the outside air
O2 & CO2 transport in the body
O2 Transport
Where oxygen is absorbed in the lungs and carried to the peripheral tissues by blood
About 2% oxygen gas is dissolved in the plasma of the blood, but mores O2 is transported by binding to hemoglobin
The amount of O2 bound to hemoglobin is determined by the saturation of the hemoglobin (called the percent saturation of hemoglobin SbO2%)
Saturation level is determined by PO2
Can be illustrated by an Oxygen Dissociation Curve (ODC)
Also known as the oxygen-hemoglobin Dissociation Curve or Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Shows the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin at different partial pressures of O2 (PO2)
Lactic acid b) Internal body temperature c) cellular respiration rate
Shits left = more O2 transported by hemoglobin ⇒ shifts right = less O2 transported by hemoglobin
CO2 Transport
Process of which CO2 in blood is moved into the alveoli and then exhaled from the body
This transport is much more complicated than the transport of O2
But it is good to know how bodies help to mediate levels of gases so we don't get a buildup of carbonic acid in our body, which lowers the pH of our system and messes with our metabolism
CO2 transport under normal conditions
Small amounts of CO2 (5-10%) is dissolved in the plasma
Rest diffuses into the red blood cells and will be transported out of the body through the bicarbonate system
Storing CO2 as carbonic acid until it reaches the lungs
CO2 transport under not-so-normal conditions
When O2 levels are lower than normal, CO2 (~20%) can bind to hemoglobin and will be released when it reaches the lungs and high O2 levels
CO2 takes up space in the hemoglobin, which can block O2 from binding
More space for CO2 = less space for O2
Less space for CO2 = more space for O2
O2 Utilization In The Body
The amount of O2 that is being used by our cells can be measured by a-VO2 (a-VO2 diff)
The difference between the amount of O2 in the artery and vein (each side of a capillary) reflects the amount of O2 that was delivered to the muscle
Our VO2max is related to this measurement and is the maximum amount of oxygen that our muscle tissues are able to extract and utiliza from the blood
Functioning of the Respiratory System
Exercise → demand of oxygen increases
Body will alter its physiological processes to try to achieve what we call steady state VO2
Where the body has just enough O2 coming into perform the desired activity
Before physiological mechanisms catch up, Oxygen deficit occurs
Difference between the oxygen required to perform a task and the oxygen actually consumed, before reaching a new steady state
Created by our body using O2 already stored in the myoglobin and will depend on the intensity of the exercise
New O2 entering the system is being used for the creation of energy (steady state VO2) rather than being stored in the body
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
The physiological mechanisms that increase oxygen absorption into the body (increase HR, increased ventilation) will still try to bring large quantities of O2 even though the demand from the muscles has stopped
This process’s purpose is to aid in the recovery from the oxygen deficit
Trained individual will reach the steady state plateau faster than an untrained individual resulting in a smaller O2 deficit, which means
Reaching steady state exercise more quickly allows them to utilize their energy systems more efficiently (oxygen becomes available more quickly)
ATP production is faster/more efficient
Smaller O2 deficit (oxygen can still be stored in the muscles)
Allow body to change without having the LAG of waiting the physiological mechanisms to catch up with the absorption of oxygen
Recovery of muscles can happen much faster
Allowing more reps, more sets, more training sessions
Ventilatory threshold is reached when demand of oxygen continues to increase
Increase of ventilation much more rapidly than intensity
Thought to be occurred due to the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood (trying to control pH levels)
Marker of an increased reliance on our anaerobic metabolism
As we continue to produce energy using anaerobic pathways, blood lactate levels start to increase (lactate threshold)
Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA)
Trained individual will reach their lactate threshold as early as someone who is untrained
VO2 max
Respiratory systems work most efficiently when we maximize our
Stroke volume (SV)
Heart Rate (HR)
O2 utilization (a-VO2 diff)
Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)
Comparing VO2max and VCO2max
Comparing these two values can help determine which metabolic processes are occurring inside the body
Limiting Factors of VO2max
Energy system
Too few mitochondria in a muscle to effectively undergo cellular respiration
Cardiovascular system
Inadequate blood flow, cardiac output, hemoglobin
Respiratory system
Inadequate ventilation or oxygen diffusion
Unit 4:
Stages of motor learning
Cognitive stage
Gaining basic knowledge of how to perform a task
Think how to perform while performing
Associative stage
Develop awareness of mistakes they are making
Fewer, less pronounced, errors
Autonomous stage
Movement becomes autonomic
Mastery of movement
Categories of fundamental movement skills
Stability (balance)
Skills like stork standing, stopping, bending and twisting
Locomotion (travelling)
Running, kumping, leaping, and skipping
Manipulation (object control)
throwing , catching, striking, and dribbling
Skill transferability
Applying skills learned previously to a different activity
Badminton to tennis
FMS (fundamental movement skills)
Beginning of physical literacy
Long-term athlete development (LTAD)
Interrelationship between fundamental movement skills and physical literacy
Earliest stage involve fundamental skill training
Later stages progress to more focussed training once FMS has been mastered
Breaking down a skill
Preparation
Execution
follow -through