Rise of Totalitarianism Before World War II

Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is when a government attempts to exert control over every aspect of its citizens' lives. This control can encompass personal life, religion, and private spaces, irrespective of the government's structure (e.g., communist, fascist).

Soviet Union

Power Struggle After Lenin's Death

Following Lenin's death, a power struggle ensued between Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. Trotsky, a brilliant military leader, was considered the likely successor. However, Stalin, despite not being traditionally likable, skillfully navigated political dynamics. Stalin outmaneuvered Trotsky by forming alliances with other influential party members (e.g., Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin) who, despite individual ambitions, supported Stalin in removing Trotsky. By 1927, Stalin had solidified his leadership, exiling Trotsky, who was later assassinated in Mexico.

Socialism in One Nation

Stalin shifted the focus from promoting international revolution (Marx's idea) to establishing "socialism in one nation," concentrating on developing a communist state within the Soviet Union. While still intending to assist other nations in adopting communism, his priority was internal development.

The First Five-Year Plan

Stalin's major initiative involved reversing Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP), which had permitted some market economy elements. The first five-year plan aimed to rapidly industrialize Russia and replace the NEP with a centrally planned communist economy. This involved a central government regulating production and setting prices, a monumental undertaking that faced resistance and required forceful implementation.

Industrial Production

Although the five-year plan did see a rapid increase in industrial production, especially in heavy industry (steel, military equipment), this was accomplished through profound social, political, and economic upheaval, utilizing underpaid and unsafe labor.

Targeting the Kulaks

Stalin targeted Kulaks, who were lower-class individuals who had accumulated some wealth under the NEP. They were portrayed as enemies of the revolution. This campaign, termed "de-kulakization," involved harassment, property confiscation, and killings, affecting hundreds of thousands of people and anyone disagreeing with Stalin's collectivization policies. The goal was the liquidation of the Kulak class.

Mass Literacy and Numeracy Campaigns

Militant atheism became integrated into the school curriculum. State-sponsored education programs were initiated, leading to increased literacy and numeracy rates, which later contributed to Russia's scientific and political advancements (e.g., the space race).

Collectivization

Reversing Lenin's step away from collectivization, Stalin forcefully implemented it. Individual family farms were consolidated into large collective farms where multiple families worked and lived together, eliminating private property and social class distinctions. Collective farms were called Kolkhozes, while Sovkhozes were collective farms set up by the government on land taken from Kulaks or other excess land. This policy deeply affected traditional family life and faced significant resistance, but the threat of being labeled a kulak drove compliance.

Lysenkoism

Stalin supported Trophim Lysenko, whose biological theories, known as Lysenkoism, rejected genetics in favor of Lamarckian ideas of acquired traits. Lamarck's theories contrasted with Darwin's genetic mutation theory, suggesting that traits acquired during an organism's life could be inherited (e.g., a giraffe stretching its neck). Lysenko believed crops could be infinitely adaptable, leading to catastrophic agricultural practices. Scientists who supported genetics faced persecution, including job loss, imprisonment, and death. Lysenko's pseudo-scientific theories led to crop failures and artificial starvation, exemplified by planting winter wheat that failed to grow, while grain exports continued due to the planned economy.

The Holodomor

One of Stalin's most brutal actions was the treatment of Ukraine in the 1930s. Food production issues were worsened by Lysenko's methods. The government set grain collection quotas before harvests, leading to severe food shortages in grain-producing regions like Ukraine. The assumption was that people were hiding grain. In 1932-1933, this resulted in the Holodomor, a famine that caused approximately 3.5 to 5 million deaths by starvation. Some historians argue this was a deliberate act of genocide to suppress Ukrainian nationalism, given Ukraine's desire for independence.

Historical Context of Ukraine and Russia

The shared origins of Ukraine and Russia trace back to the Kievan Rus', established by Vikings in Eastern Europe. Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine, was a major city-state in this region. Under Volodymyr the Great, the Rus' adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which later branched into Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox Christianity. After the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, Moscow rose in prominence. In the 17th century, Bohdan Khmelnytsky sought Russian help to gain independence from Poland, proposing Ukraine as a vassal state of Russia. However, Vladimir Putin views this as a permanent submission of Ukraine to Russia. By the late 18th century, Russia had conquered most of Ukraine, leading to the Russian perception of Ukrainians as simply Russian. During the Russian Civil War, Ukraine fought for independence against both the Red and White armies but was ultimately incorporated into the USSR as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Putin claims Ukraine never existed historically and that Ukrainian identity was created by Lenin, a view not historically substantiated. Access to Ukraine's resources is a major motivation for Russia.

Building a Cult of Personality

Stalin created a cult of personality, portraying himself as a perfect and great leader. Historical events were rewritten to emphasize his role, and any contradictory information, such as Lenin's disapproval, was omitted. This served to unify the country around his persona.

The Great Purges

Stalin's paranoia led to the Great Purges, eliminating potential rivals within the Bolshevik party. The NKVD (secret police) was used to arrest and "disappear" people. The assassination of Kirov was used as justification. Political rivals were killed or forced to confess to false charges in show trials (e.g., the Moscow Trials of 1936, where Zinoviev and Kamenev were forced to confess). Millions passed through the Gulag system, a network of forced labor camps. The purges ended with the removal of Nikolai Yezhov, head of the NKVD, who was replaced by Lavrentiy Beria, ensuring Stalin's absolute control. The Great Purges resembled the Reign of Terror in France, where notable figures were falsely accused and executed.

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

Concerned about Nazi Germany, Stalin initially hoped that the imperialist powers would exhaust themselves in war. To stay out of the conflict and rebuild his military, in 1939, Stalin signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact) with Nazi Germany, which divided Poland between them. This ensured, temporarily, that the Soviet Union would not be in conflict with Germany, although Stalin purged more military officials, further weakening the military. Molotov's name is recognized from the Molotov cocktail that was named after him during the Finnish conflict.

Italy

Unification and Colonial Ambitions

Italy unified in the mid-19th century, led by Camillo Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi, and sought to establish itself as a major European power. However, its colonial efforts faltered, notably with the defeat by Emperor Menelik II of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) at the Battle of Adwa in the 1880s.

World War I and Disappointment

Italy entered World War I to prove its strength but was left disappointed by the Treaty of Versailles, receiving little territorial gain despite being on the winning side. This outcome fueled resentment and a sense of unfulfilled ambition.

Benito Mussolini and the Rise of Fascism

Benito Mussolini, a former socialist extremist, was disillusioned by Italy's losses and embraced a new ideology known as fascism. Fascism combined elements of absolutism, totalitarianism, Italian nationalism, anti-Bolshevism, and anti-socialism. The philosophy of fascism is often accredited by Mussolini, although he likely did not write all of it himself.

The core of fascism is based around the fasces, which is a bundle of sticks surrounding an axe to be used as a symbol. The idea behind the fasces is that while a single stick is easy to break, it is very difficult to break all the sticks in a bundle.

Fascist Ideology

Fascism featured extreme nationalism, a clear national identity (excluding those who don't fit), and social Darwinist ideas of racial competition. It advocated a unitary state with one political party, controlling all aspects of life. There should be no organizations outside the state in fascism. The state serves the purpose of the individual is valued little unless they are serving the state.

The economy is to be organized by the government, with corporations where both the managers and the workers live together, but there are no labor unions. If workers are not happy with working conditions, the workers, managers, and corporation will go to the state to hash it out.

Fascism is associated with anti-Semitism, xenophobia, racial superiority, legalized violence, military aggression, and propaganda. Dissenters of fascism can expect to be beaten.

Seizure of Power

The Socialist Party defeated the fascists in an election after World War I, but Mussolini, unhappy with the result, used force to seize power. In October 1922, he organized the March on Rome, where his Black Shirts (supporters) threatened the king and prime minister, demanding Mussolini's appointment as prime minister. The king capitulated, appointing Mussolini, who then undermined democracy to consolidate his power.

Consolidating Power

Mussolini manipulated elections, ensuring his party gained dominance. He became known as "Il Duce" (the leader) and outwardly projected an image of strength and stability. While Italy's economy boomed for a time, it sacrificed long-term development for short-term growth.

Colonial Expansion

Italy sought to demonstrate its power and avenge its earlier defeat in Abyssinia. It successfully took over Libya and then invaded Somaliland and Abyssinia again. In 1936, they defeated the Ethiopians, using tanks and illegal mustard gas, colonizing Ethiopia until the end of World War II but only maintaining a tenuous grasp.

Internal Repression and Antisemitism

The fascist state became increasingly repressive, adopting antisemitic rhetoric and persecuting a Slavic minority. Italian Jews were sent to concentration camps. Mussolini idealized the Romans, building monuments and co-opting Roman history to legitimize his regime.

Germany

Post-World War I Germany

After the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was economically devastated, politically unstable, and burdened with war debts. Hyperinflation crippled the economy. In 1923, $1 was equal to 50 Deutsche Marks. By the end of 1923, $1 was equal to 4.2 illiarden Deutsche Marks.

Rise of the Nazi Party

Amidst instability, the National Socialist Party (Nazi Party) attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic in 1923 in a Beer Hall Putsch led by Adolf Hitler. The attempt failed, and Hitler was arrested. While in jail, he wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his plans, which were largely ignored despite the book's popularity. Hitler shifted strategies after release from jail by trying to gain power through legal means and aggressive propaganda.

The Great Depression and Nazi Appeal

Germany recovered in the 1920s due to American loans, its economy stabilized, until the Great Depression hit, causing mass unemployment and economic collapse. The Nazi message resonated with those who were scared, unemployed, and felt disenfranchised. They blamed the Treaty of Versailles, Bolsheviks, and Jews for Germany's problems.

Hitler's Conspiracy Theories

Hitler believed that capitalist countries were dominated by Jews and that communism was a Jewish plot. He thought Jews were orchestrating another world war to profit from it, justifying the Holocaust as a countermeasure to their plan.

Hitler Becomes Chancellor

Paul von Hindenburg, president of the Weimar Republic, appointed Hitler as chancellor in 1933, influenced by conservative parties and industrialists who believed the Nazis would bring stability and were better than more liberal rivals. It was believed that Hitler could be controlled by giving him a chancellor position. In 1933, Hitler forced through the Enabling Acts, granting him the power to pass laws without parliamentary approval, effectively transforming Germany into a fascist state.

Consolidating Power

Hitler eliminated opposition groups, outlawed labor unions, and used his Brown Shirts (SA or stormtroopers) to intimidate political rivals. He forced other political parties to dissolve and launched the Night of the Long Knives, purging rivals within the Nazi party. After Hindenburg's death, Hitler merged the positions of president and chancellor into the "Führer," consolidating absolute power.

Nazi Ideology

Social Darwinism and Racial Hierarchy

The Nazis believed in social Darwinism, the idea of constant competition between races and that the biggest and strongest were winning. They advocated expansion to secure land and resources, displacing or enslaving "lesser races" to benefit the Aryan race. Women are purely used for childbearing.

Health and Cleanliness

Nazi ideology was obsessed with health and cleanliness, promoting the idea that anything done in service of the Volk (German people) was ethically right. This justified actions such as killing or taking land from other races to improve the health of the German people.

Nuremberg Laws and Forced Sterilization

Scientists and medical professionals saw swaths of the population as degenerate and attributed all of it to genetics. The Nuremberg Laws greatly limited the rights of Jews, outlawing marriage between Jews and non-Jews and revoking Jewish citizenship. Policies of forced sterilization were implemented, targeting Jews, LGBT individuals, people with mental or physical disabilities, and those arrested for crimes (deemed genetic). Upwards of 500,00 people were sterilized.

Anti-Communism

The Nazis were violently anticommunist, seeing communism as an international Jewish conspiracy (Judeo-Bolshevism) that aimed to undermine Germany. They connected this to the "stab in the back" myth, claiming that Germany didn't lose World War I but was betrayed by socialist Jews.

Lebensraum (Living Space)

Hitler implemented his expansionist ideas, seeking to reclaim lost territories. He reintegrated the Saarland in a reasonable manner. He then remilitarized the Rhineland, testing the limits of international opposition, betting that he could successfully get away with rearming it. In 1938, he annexed Austria (Anschluss) through voter intimidation. But in 1939, Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia, which was territory more heavily dominated by Czechs than Germans. It became clearer and clearer that he was going to continue expanding no matter what. Britain tells the Czechs that they're not going to get help, so the surrender without allied support.

Munich Agreement and Appeasement

The British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, sought to negotiate with Hitler the German desire to take the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, and signed the Munich Agreement. He declared he had secured "peace in our time," but Hitler intended to violate the agreement. The final ultimatum was set by the Allies: If Germany moved into Poland, it will be war. When Hitler says it is time for the war, and he invades Poland, triggering the start of World War II in Europe.

Spain

Spanish Civil War

Spain remained neutral during World War I but experienced internal conflict. After the king stepped down, in 1936, Francisco Franco and military officers overthrew the elected socialist government, leading to the Spanish Civil War. The war was fought between the socialist Popular Front (loyalists/republicans) and the Nationalist Front (rebels) led by Franco's Falange party. Germany and Italy supported this with military support and intervention of their air forces. Ernest Hemingway fought on behalf of the Republicans.

A notable battle was Guernica, in which a city in the North of Germany was bombed by German, Italian, and Spanish planes which leveled the city of Guernica. This gives Hitler the confirmation that his air force can take on larger powers. Franco solidified his power and became the leader of Spain.

Franco's Rule

Franco did not involve Spain in World War II but followed a policy of isolation, remaining conservative and relatively poor. He ruled until his death in 1975, considered one of the last fascists left.
When he dies, he dies just before the first episode of Saturday Night Live starts. And as breaking news, the first joke ever made on SNL was, "Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead."

Asia: China and Japan

Sino-Japanese War and Humiliation of China

Japan had defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War, leading to China's "century of humiliation." China experienced internal turmoil after the Boxer Rebellion and the failure of the self-strengthening movement, while Japan continued to grow and evolve.

Overthrow of the Qing Dynasty

By 1911, the Qing dynasty was overthrown by nationalist revolutionaries like Sun Yat-sen, the father of Chinese nationalism. Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor, leading to rebellions and China breaking into the warlord era, with foreigners dominating coastal regions.

Japan's Growth and Shift back to Militarism

In the 1920s, Japan experienced economic growth. But the Great Depression severely hit Japan. Politically, the turn began towards government control and the army. Anyone who didn't agree with the emperor was assassinated, and thus the period was known as government by assassination in Japan. Educated men believed that Japan was greater than other Asians, and perhaps greater than Europeans, meaning that they deserved the empire. Korea was controlled by the Japanese government. More and more resources were demanded from the Japanese government as the military came into expansion. However, the Japanese government and the army began to act separately, and often the army was aggressive to the dismay of the prime minister.

Koreans faced massive discrimination, and Korean people saw thousands of people get moved to Japan or forced into hard labor. The Japanese discriminated against Korean people.

One historian says that Gekokujo (patriotic insubordination), was a way for soldiers to act however they wanted, even if they were not supposed to have certain powers.

Manchurian expansion and annexation.

Japan begins probing China for territory from warlords. To gain their foothold in the territory, they make a private railway, the South Manchurian Railway. After the Chinese damaged the railroads, the Japanese used it as a reason to further send more troops in order to defend the railway. Japanese soldiers sometimes blow up the railway, and blame it on the Chinese in order to take over more territory.

Chinese Resistance and the United Front

Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), sought to unify China and resist Japanese aggression. He formed a united front with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) despite his previous deep anti-communistic sentiments.

Battle of Shanghai

Starting at the Battle of Shanghai, it served as the start of World War II in Asia. The Chinese used the constricted city environment as a way to increase their chances of defending the territory. Despite this, Shanghai fell, but the Japanese became increasingly frustrated. Chiang Kai-shek chose to make the stand in Shanghai to get international press coverage.

Conclusion

The interwar period saw the rise of nationalist, fascist governments and a totalitarian communist state in the Soviet Union. Common themes included the impact of the Great Depression, dictators consolidating power, and blaming others for problems to leverage power.