Comprehensive Study Notes on Cognition, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

Thinking and the Work of Cognitive Psychologists . Thinking, also referred to as recognition, is defined as a mental process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating information. . Cognitive psychologists study these mental activities in great detail, specifically focusing on the following four foundational areas: 1. Concepts, 2. Problem solving, 3. Decision making, and 4. Judgment formation. # Influential Cognitive Scientists and Theories . Albert Bandura: Known for his work on Social Learning Theory, the Bobo doll experiments, and the concept of Modeling. . Julian Rotter: Focused on the concept known as the focus of control. . Martin Seligman: Associated with learned helplessness and the field of positive psychology. . Aaron Beck: Developed the concept of the cognitive triad. He posited that depression stems from a negative view of three areas: the world in general, oneself, and the future. . Albert Ellis: Developed Rational Emotive Therapy, which focuses on an individual's beliefs and their reactions to events, rather than the action itself. # Concepts and Category Hierarchies . Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. For instance, while there are many varieties of chairs, their common features are what define the general concept of a chair. . Development of Concepts: We form some concepts by rigid definitions (e.g., a triangle is defined as having three sides). However, we mostly form concepts by mental images or prototypes. For example, a robin is considered a prototype of a bird, whereas a penguin is not. . Category Hierarchies: We organize concepts into structured hierarchies to manage information. These include: . Superordinate category (top level). . Basic category (middle level). . Subordinate category (bottom, more specific level). . Impact on Schemas: Once an item is placed into a category, our memory tends to shift toward the category's prototype. We become more likely to think of the characteristics of the prototype rather than the individual characteristics of a specific object, which is why individual details are sometimes not noticed. # Problem-Solving Strategies . There are two primary ways to solve problems: algorithms and heuristics. . Algorithms: These are methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem. They exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution and, consequently, take a long time to execute. Computers utilize algorithms for processing. . Heuristics: These are simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. While they are speedier than algorithms, they are also more error-prone. Heuristics allow us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions. . Novel Problems: The term "novel" is defined as "new" and is highlighted as essential for testing purposes. # Insight and Creativity . Insight: This involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. It is observed in both humans and animals. According to brain imaging and EEG studies (Jung-Beeman, 2004), the moment an insight strikes, it activates the right temporal cortex. The duration between not knowing a solution and realizing it is approximately $0.3\,\text{seconds}$. . Creativity: This is difficult to define but generally involves originality and functionality. . Convergent thinking: Refers to finding one specific answer, such as in riddles. . Divergent thinking: Refers to open-ended thinking with many possible answers. . Research indicates there is little correlation between creativity and intelligence. # Decision Making and Intuition . Intuition: An effortless, immediate, and automatic feeling or thought that occurs without explicit conscious reasoning. . Representative Heuristic: This involves estimating the likelihood of events based on how closely they resemble a particular prototype in our minds. . Availability Heuristic: This involves estimating the likelihood of events based on how readily examples or instances come to mind. # Obstacles to Problem Solving . Confirmation Bias: This is a tendency to search specifically for information that confirms one's local or personal biases. . Fixation: This is the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective and serves as a major impediment to problem solving. Two specific examples of fixation are: . 1. Mental set. . 2. Functional fixedness.