arch 150 march 4th

Peopling of the New World

• The term "peopling of the New World" is used in archaeology to avoid the loaded term "colonization."

• Modern Native Americans are descended from populations in East or Northeast Asia who migrated across the Bering Land Bridge, likely at least by 15,000 years ago and possibly as early as 18,000 years ago.

Biological and Archaeological Evidence

• Molecular Biology

  • Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y chromosomes provide crucial insights into the origins of Native Americans.

  • Studies suggest there were at least five major migrations from the old world contributing to the Native American gene pool.

• Haplogroups

  • Haplogroup A: Common among Native Americans, originating from Central to Northeastern Siberia.

  • Haplogroup C and D: Also originated in Central to Northeastern Siberia.

  • Haplogroup B: Found among many Native Americans, thought to emerge from Northern China.

  • Haplogroup M: Common in North America but less so in South America, originating in Mongolia.

  • Haplogroup X: Originates from the Eurasian Steppe, possibly entering the gene pool of Native Americans through various pathways.

Migration Routes and Timing

• Bering Land Bridge

  • During Pleistocene glacial maxima, the Bering Sea was a dry land bridge referred to as Beringia, facilitating migration.

  • The last exposure of this land bridge occurred approximately between 36,000 and 11,000 years ago.

• Migration Theories

  • The traditional model posits that early populations followed migratory game animals (like mammoths) across this bridge into the New World.

  • However, the hypothesis of maritime migration along the Pacific Coast is also plausible, given the sophistication of potentially early boating technologies.

• Colonization Process

  • The peopling of the Americas was likely more complex, involving multiple waves of migration rather than a singular event.

Early Inhabitants of the New World

• Cultural Traditions

  • The earliest known prominent cultural tradition is the Clovis Culture (11,300 - 10,900 years ago), representing specialized big-game hunters.

  • Clovis sites are predominantly kill sites for large mammals such as mammoths and mastodons.

• Early Sites and Findings

  • Sites like Monte Verde in Chile (dating to ca. 14,000 - 12,500 years ago), suggest a diverse subsistence strategy centered around gathering and foraging instead of solely big-game hunting.

  • Meadowcroft Rock Shelter in Pennsylvania shows human presence dating as far back as approximately 19,500 years ago.

  • Other important sites include Cactus Hill (near 13,000 years ago) and the Buttermilk Creek Complex (15,500 - 13,000 years ago).

  • Some sites have yielded tools and evidence of habitation much earlier than Clovis culture.

Challenges to Traditional Models

• Early theories assumed a singular migration through an ice-free corridor that opened around 12,000 years ago, but challenges arise:

  • Conditions in the ice-free corridor may have been inhospitable, lacking sufficient vegetation and resources.

  • There is no cohesive cultural tradition evident among the earliest inhabitants; each site demonstrates unique practices and artifacts.

  • Sites are scattered across ecological zones, making it hard to identify a singular migration pattern.

Conclusion on Timing and Method of Migration

• By approximately 15,000 years ago, populations had moved into the New World; evidence suggests they may have arrived even earlier.

• The complexity of migration, including potential repeated contact with the old world, challenges simplistic views of a singular colonization event.