A&P final 2

Skeletal System and Joints

• Chapter 9 – Saddle (Sellar) Joint
• Classic example: carpometacarpal joint of the thumb (trapezium + 1st metacarpal).
• Movement: biaxial—flexion/extension and abduction/adduction; allows the opposition motion crucial for grasping.
• Clinical significance: injuries here limit hand dexterity; common in osteoarthritis of the thumb.

Muscle Tissue

• Chapter 10 (first page) – Three muscle-tissue types
• Skeletal muscle
◦ Also called voluntary, striated, or somatic muscle.
◦ Multinucleated, attached to bones via tendons; fast, forceful contraction; subject to fatigue.
• Cardiac muscle
◦ Found only in myocardium; involuntary; intercalated discs; autorhythmic; highly resistant to fatigue.
• Smooth muscle
◦ Involuntary, non-striated; walls of hollow organs & vessels; slow, sustained contraction; regulates lumen diameter and propulsive movements.

Nervous System Essentials (Chapter 11)

• Page 180 – Structural breakdown
• Central Nervous System (CNS): brain + spinal cord; integration/command center.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, sensory receptors; communication lines linking body to CNS.
• Vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X)
• Longest parasympathetic pathway; innervates heart, lungs, GI tract; slows HR, stimulates digestion, modulates immune response.

Pain, Receptors, and Sensory Highlights

• Page 229 – Pain subtypes
• Acute vs. chronic pain; nociceptive vs. neuropathic.
• Referred pain: perception at a site distant from stimulus (e.g., MI pain in left arm).
• Chemoreceptors
• Detect chemical changes (\$\mathrm{pO2}\$, \$\mathrm{pCO2}\$, pH) in carotid & aortic bodies; drive respiratory rate adjustments.
• Skeletal muscle pump
• Rhythmic contraction of limb muscles squeezes veins → promotes venous return; prevents blood pooling & deep-vein thrombosis.

Cardiovascular System: Blood, Heart, & Hemodynamics

• Anemia (Page 283)
• Condition: reduced \$\text{[RBC]}\$, hematocrit, or \$\mathrm{[Hb]}\$.
• Etiologies: iron deficiency, B{12}/folate deficit, marrow failure, hemorrhage, hemolysis. • Countermeasures: iron supplementation, B{12}/folate, erythropoietin, transfusion—tailored to cause.
• Heart-flow pathway (Pages 302–303)

  1. Systemic veins → SVC/IVC
  2. Right atrium → tricuspid valve
  3. Right ventricle → pulmonary semilunar valve
  4. Pulmonary trunk → pulmonary arteries → lungs
  5. Pulmonary veins → left atrium
  6. Mitral (bicuspid) valve → left ventricle
  7. Aortic semilunar valve → aorta → systemic arteries.
    • Neutrophils (clarified from "neural fields", Page 284)
    • First-line granulocytes; phagocytose bacteria; multilobed nuclei; elevated in acute bacterial infection.

Immunology & Peripheral Circulation

• Pages 290–291 – Antigens vs. Antibodies
• Antigen: any non-self molecule (often protein/polysaccharide) that elicits immune response.
• Antibody (Immunoglobulin): Y-shaped protein produced by B cells; specifically binds antigen; neutralizes or tags for destruction.
• Pulse points (around Page 228) – Key arterial palpation sites
• Temporal, facial, carotid, brachial, radial, femoral, popliteal, posterior tibial, dorsalis pedis.
• Clinical use: HR determination, vascular patency.

Vascular Physiology & Pathology

• Atherosclerosis (Page 336)
• Lipid-rich plaques in tunica intima; inflammation & calcification stiffen vessel walls.
• Can occur in ANY artery (coronary, carotid, cerebral, renal, peripheral).
• Complications: myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, peripheral artery disease, aneurysm formation.
• Vasoconstriction vs. Vasodilation (March lecture figures)
• Vasoconstriction
◦ Lumen diameter ↓
◦ Resistance & pressure (BP) ↑
◦ Blood-flow volume ↓
◦ Can provoke hypertension.
• Vasodilation
◦ Lumen diameter ↑
◦ Resistance & pressure ↓
◦ Blood-flow volume ↑
◦ May lead to hypotension if excessive.

Practical Implications & Review Strategy

• High-yield chapters: 9–11, 14.
• Tables/green boxes (e.g., Page 216) consolidate must-memorize structures—review these first.
• Integrate page-specific diagrams (vasodilation/vasoconstriction, heart flow) into flashcards.
• Link physiology to pathology: anemia ↔ oxygen transport; atherosclerosis ↔ vessel compliance; vagus nerve ↔ parasympathetic tone.