Learning Terminology, Word Roots, and Combining Forms

Medical terminology dates back to a period when humans communicated solely through spoken language without any written system.
Standardization and uniformity in the language of medicine began to emerge through the work of Hippocrates ( $460\text{--}337$ BC).
Hippocrates is formally recognized as the "Father of Medicine."

A significant majority of contemporary medical terms are derived from Ancient Greek and Latin.
Word building was historically, and remains today, the primary method used to describe new medical discoveries and advancements.
Medical terms often utilize ancient roots even for modern procedures. For example, the suffix \text{-tomy} means "cutting." While a modern procedure like phlebotomy (the incision of a vein) might not be colloquially described as "cutting," the basic linguistic concept remains rooted in that definition.
Compound words are created by combining two words to form a single new word with a meaning related to both original components.
English compound word examples:
- $Else$ (other) + $Where$ (location) = $Elsewhere$ .
- $Grand$ (above) + $Mother$ (female caregiver) = $Grandmother$ .
- $Sun$ (yellow, warm, energy) + $Flower$ (blooming plant) = $Sunflower$ .
Medical terminology compound word example:
- $Gynec/o$ (women) + $\text{-logy}$ (study of) = $Gynecology$ (Study of Women).

In a medical environment, misspelling or mispronouncing terms can result in life-threatening situations.
The use of incorrect abbreviations can lead to serious adverse consequences; therefore, verbal instructions must always be checked and rechecked.
Mastering correct spelling requires repeated exposure to the terms in context.
Practical methods for learning include:
- Pronouncing words aloud.
- Consulting resources such as medical dictionaries.
- Learning basic medical terms in other languages, such as Spanish.
Eponyms are medical terms derived from the names of people, such as Parkinson's disease.
Traditionally, eponyms are formed by adding an apostrophe followed by an "s."
Current trends in some medical associations involve dropping the possessive form (apostrophe and "s") in favor of terms like Parkinson disease.

Medical terms are constructed from four primary word parts:
- Prefix
- Suffix
- Word Root
- Combining Form
The Word Root serves as the foundation or base of the medical term and indicates the subject being discussed.
A combining vowel is used to tie a word root to a prefix or a suffix.
Word roots are typically presented in their combining form, which includes a vowel.
The vowel "o" is utilized in approximately $70\%$ of medical terms.
When a suffix begins with a vowel, that specific vowel is used.
Word Construction vs. Deconstruction:
- When constructing a word, the word root is commonly the central focus.
- When deconstructing a word to determine its meaning, the suffix is the first place to start.
Structural Example: Tonsillectomy
- $tonsil$ = throat tissue.
- $\text{-ectomy}$ = complete removal of.
- Definition = complete removal of throat tissue.

General English pluralization involves adding $\text{-s}$ or $\text{-es}$ to a word:
- $cancer$ becomes $cancers$ .
- $abscess$ becomes $abscesses$ .
Terms with Greek or Latin origins follow the pluralization rules of those specific languages:
- $bursa$ becomes $bursae$ .
- $embolus$ becomes $emboli$ .
Specific pluralization guidelines:
- Add $\text{-s}$ to words ending in any vowel or consonant except s, x, z, or y (e.g., $joint$ to $joints$ ).
- Add $\text{-es}$ to words ending in s, x, or z (e.g., $reflex$ to $reflexes$ ).
- For Latin words ending in $x$ , remove the $x$ and add $\text{-ces}$ (e.g., $appendix$ to $appendices$ ).
- For words ending in $y$ preceded by a consonant, remove the $y$ and add $\text{-ies}$ (e.g., $vasectomy$ to $vasectomies$ ).
- For words ending in $y$ preceded by a vowel, the standard plural suffix is $\text{-s}$ (e.g., $boy$ to $boys$ ).
- For Latin terms ending in $a$ , add $\text{-e}$ (e.g., $fossa$ to $fossae$ ).
- For Latin terms ending in $us$ , remove the $\text{-us}$ and add $\text{-i}$ (e.g., $Staphylococcus$ to $Staphylococci$ ).
- For Greek words ending in $sis$ , change the ending to $ses$ (e.g., $psychosis$ to $psychoses$ ).

$a$ – Before
$ac$ – Before meals
$AMI$ – Acute myocardial infarction
$bid$ – Twice a day
$BP$ – Blood pressure
$c/o$ – Complaining of
$Ca$ – Cancer / carcinoma
$CC$ – Chief complaint
$COPD$ – Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis)
$CXR$ – Chest X-ray
$DOB$ – Date of birth
$Dx$ – Diagnosis
$ECG, EKG$ – Electrocardiogram
$Fx$ – Fracture
$GI$ – Gastrointestinal
$h/o$ – History of
$HEENT$ – Head, ears, eyes, nose, throat
$HTN$ – Hypertension
$Hx$ – History
$IM$ – Intramuscular
$LAC$ – Laceration
$LOC$ – Level of consciousness
$mcg$ – Microgram
$NKDA$ – No known drug allergies
$npo$ – Nothing by mouth
$po$ – By mouth
$PRN$ – As needed
$qid$ – Four times a day
$SOB$ – Shortness of breath
$tid$ – Three times a day
$Tx$ – Treatment
$w/o$ – Without
$WNL$ – Within normal limits