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This study guide is designed to help you prepare for your midterm exam in World History. Make sure to review each section thoroughly and understand the key concepts. Good luck!

1. CHINESE DYNASTIES

Loess and the Yellow River

• Loess is fine windblown soil that raises the water level of rivers. Its color gave the name to the Yellow River. 

• The fertile loess soil contributed to agricultural development in ancient China.

• The river's unpredictable flooding forced ancient Chinese societies to develop advanced irrigation and flood control techniques. Due to its flooding, the Yellow River is often called the "River of Sorrows.”

Chinese Dynasties (create a timeline)

• The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) is known for its bronze work and early writing advancements.  

• The Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) introduced the Mandate of Heaven, the idea that the heavens granted a ruler’s right to govern but could be lost if they failed to provide good government.

• The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) unified China under a centralized government, standardized systems like currency and writing, and built much of the Great Wall under the orders of Emperor Shi Huangdi to protect against northern invasions.

• The Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) followed, ushering in a golden age of cultural, scientific, and economic prosperity. 

  • Confucianism became the official belief system of the state, aligning with their goal of creating a stable and unified empire.

  • Emperor Wudi opened the Silk Road, a network of trade routes that connected China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, allowing for the exchange of goods such as silk, spices, and other valuable items, as well as the spread of cultural, religious, and technological ideas.

2. INDIAN EMPIRES 

Monsoons

• India is prone to monsoons, or seasonal winds that regularly blow across the Indian subcontinent.

• Monsoons are critical for agriculture, providing necessary rainfall for crops.

• However, they can also lead to devastating floods if they are too strong or prolonged.

Founding of the First Indian Empire

• Chandragupta Maurya founded the first Indian empire: the Mauryan Empire.

• Chandragupta established a centralized government, expanded the empire through military conquests, and developed roads and trade routes.

• The development of the decimal system and the concept of zero were significant mathematical achievements during the Gupta period in ancient India.

Core Beliefs and Practices of Hinduism

• The Vedas are the foundational sacred texts of Hinduism, containing hymns, prayers, and rituals that guide Hindu spiritual beliefs and practices.

• Main Hindu teachings:

  • Rebirth (samsara), aiming to achieve moksha, or liberation from this cycle.

  • Dharma refers to the moral and ethical duties and responsibilities of living in harmony with the universe. 

  • Karma refers to the belief that a person’s actions in life will influence their fate in the next life.

  • Ahimsa is the principle of nonviolence.

Core Beliefs and Spread of Buddhism

• Buddhism is a spiritual tradition founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) that teaches liberation from suffering and rebirth. 

• The Buddha taught that everything is temporary and subject to decay, encouraging people to focus on their spiritual path and strive diligently for personal salvation.

• Nirvana is the Buddhist belief in union with the universe and release from the cycle of rebirth, marking the ultimate goal of spiritual practice. 

• Buddhism spread beyond India through missionaries and traders who shared its teachings with other regions of Asia and beyond.

3. CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS

Mesoamerica

• In Mesoamerica, nowadays Mexico and Central America, settled the Olmec, the Maya, and the Aztec civilizations. 

  • The Olmecs carved colossal heads out of stone.

  • The Mayan civilization was known for organizing themselves into city-states, with their own rulers and governments. 

  • The Aztecs built floating gardens to cultivate maize, squash, beans, and other essential crops. 

South America

• The Incas built a vast empire across the Andes Mountains in South America. They advanced engineering, agriculture, and worship of the sun god Inti.

4. ANCIENT GREECE

The Minoans in Crete

• The Minoans were an advanced Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete, flourishing from around 2000 to 1400 BCE.

• They are known for their impressive palaces, such as Knossos, and vibrant frescoes depicting daily life and religious rituals.

• The Minoans were skilled sailors who traded extensively across the Mediterranean, spreading their culture and innovations.

The Trojan War

• The Myceneans fought the Trojan War around 1250 B.C.

• The Iliad, attributed to Homer, describes the Trojan War.

• The Iliad reflected themes of heroism and individual warrior’s resolve amidst battle’s challenges:  "Every man make up his mind to fight. And move on to his enemy! Strong as I am. It’s hard for me to face so many men. And fight with all at once …And yet I will!” 

Greeks and Spartans

• In Greece, several city-states known as polis developed. The most influential were Athens and Sparta. 

• Athens was a democratic society where citizens had the right to participate in government, while Sparta was a warrior society with less democracy and more focus on military strength.

• In Sparta, boys were trained for life as soldiers, starting their rigorous training at a young age. At the age of 15, Spartan boys began preparing for athletic events.

• As Athens expanded its empire in Greece, competition for dominance arose between Athens and Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War.

Alexander the Great

• Alexander the Great created one of the largest empires in history, extending from Greece to Egypt, Persia, and as far east as India. 

• He was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle, who influenced his love for learning and knowledge.

• When Alexander wanted to expand his empire by conquering Persia, Darius III, the King of Persia, became his greatest rival.

• After Alexander the Great's death, his vast empire was not unified under a single ruler. Instead, it was divided among his top generals leading to the creation of several Hellenistic kingdoms.

• Alexander's spread of Greek culture led to the Hellenistic era, blending Greek and Eastern influences across the regions he conquered.

Hellenistic Architecture

• Hellenistic architecture introduced grand, monumental structures like theaters, libraries, and temples, often with elaborate decorative elements.

• Hellenistic architecture blends Greek styles with influences from the East, particularly after Alexander the Great’s conquests.

• The Parthenon is the main building representing Hellenistic Architecture. The building illustrates the application of Hellenistic mathematical principles to architecture.

Greek Art and Science

• Origins of Drama: The first Greek plays evolved out of religious festivals, where choruses performed hymns and stories in honor of Dionysus.

• Key Philosophical Ideas in Stoicism and Plato’s The Republic:

  • A key Greek philosophy was Stoicism, which teaches that individuals should accept inevitable challenges and sorrows of life, focusing on controlling their reactions and achieving peace through self-discipline and wisdom.

  • In The Republic, Plato argues that the ideal state should be ruled by philosophers or individuals who possess the wisdom and virtue necessary to govern justly.

• Important Cultural Figures of Greece

Phalanx Formation

• The phalanx was an effective military formation that revolutionized ancient warfare. 

• The phalanx used shields to protect soldiers and helped maintain formation.

• This formation emphasized teamwork and discipline among soldiers.

1. ROMAN CIVILIZATION

The Origins of Rome

• Rome was founded by twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who, according to legend, were raised by a she-wolf and later established the city.

• In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was established after a successful rebellion against the Etruscans.

•  Initially, the Roman Republic was governed by a Senate consisting of 300 patricians, the aristocratic class. 

• The Roman Senate expanded democracy by allowing the admission of tribunes to represent the Plebians, the lower class. 

• Roman society was divided into two classes:

  • Patricians: wealthy landowners who served in the Senate and made laws.

  • Plebeians: the majority of the population who later gained the right to elect tribunes and veto laws.

Key Events in Roman History (create a timeline of these events)

• The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage (264–146 BCE) primarily over control of trade routes and territories in the western Mediterranean, culminating in the destruction of Carthage and Rome’s total dominance of Carthaginian territories.

• In 146 B.C., the Romans defeated Greece in battle. However, Greek culture, philosophy, and art strongly influenced Roman society. This influence shaped Roman education, literature, and even religion. The poet Horace said that Greece, in a cultural sense, "conquered" Rome, despite being defeated in war.

• In 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was assassinated, leading to a power struggle in the Roman Republic.

• In 27 B.C., Octavian became Augustus, the first emperor after defeating his rivals and taking control of Rome. The reign of Augustus marked the birth of the Roman Empire. His famous last words, "I found Rome of clay; I leave it to you of marble," reflect the transformation of Rome under his rule.

• After Octavian became emperor, the Pax Romana (27 B.C. - A.D. 180) began and lasted for about 200 years, bringing peace, unity, stability, and prosperity across the Roman Empire.

• However, long after the Pax Romana, in A.D. 285, Diocletian split the Roman Empire to make the empire easier to govern.

• In 313, Constantine proclaimed freedom of worship for all citizens of the Roman Empire, as seen in the Edict of Milan.

Christianity in Roman Society

• The Romans conquered Jerusalem where Jews, or followers of Judaism, lived.

• Since Jesus' speeches could inflame opposition to Roman rule, He became a threat to Roman authorities.

• During the spread of Christianity, the Romans did not tolerate Christians because they refused to worship the emperor as a god and did not follow the Roman gods.

Roman Art and Engineering: Realism and Innovation

• Roman Art: Roman sculpture was known for its realism, capturing detailed, lifelike depictions of individuals.

• Roman Engineering: Romans built aqueducts to transport clean water, meeting the essential needs of urban populations.

• Technological Advancements: Roman engineering innovations, like roads and bridges, helped expand and maintain the vast Roman Empire.

The Collapse of the Western Roman Empire 

• Political Instability: Frequent changes in leadership, corruption, and civil wars weakened the government, making it difficult to maintain order and defend the empire.

• Economic Decline: Heavy taxation, reliance on slave labor, and economic disparity led to financial instability, while overreliance on imports strained resources.

• Military Weakness and Invasions: The Roman military struggled with funding, discipline, and reliance on foreign mercenaries. Invasions by groups like the Visigoths, Vandals, and Huns further destabilized the empire.

• Social and Cultural Factors: Declining civic pride, population loss due to plagues, and a shift toward Christianity, which some argue redirected focus away from traditional Roman values.

• Division of the Empire: Splitting the empire into eastern and western halves (under Emperor Diocletian) weakened the west, as the wealthier eastern half (later the Byzantine Empire) thrived while the Western half declined.

Location of Constantinople

• Constantinople was a good capital location due to its position at a crossroads for trade between Asia Minor and Europe.

• The city's strategic location contributed to its wealth and cultural diversity.

• The Ottomans changed its name to Istanbul, the capital of modern Turkey.

2. MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

EUROPEAN MONARCHS AND THE CHURCH

Significance of Pope Leo III Crowning Charlemagne

• This event showed that the Pope and Charlemagne gained power, establishing the ideal of a united Christendom.

• The crowning marked the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire and a significant alliance between church and state.

• It represented the merging of Roman, Christian, and Germanic elements in Europe.

The Domesday Book

• The Domesday Book was a detailed survey of landholdings and livestock across England

• Commissioned by King William I in 1085 to assess the kingdom’s wealth after the Norman Conquest.

• The Domesday Book influenced the modern population census.

The Magna Carta: Limiting the Power of the Monarchy

• In 1215, King John of England was forced to sign the Magna Carta, a document that limited the king's power and protected the rights of his subjects.

• The Magna Carta established that even the monarch was not above the law, ensuring the king could not act arbitrarily.

• The document laid the groundwork for future constitutional laws, confirming that monarchs were obliged to obey the law and setting a precedent for the rule of law in England.

THE EUROPEAN FEUDAL SYSTEM

Feudalism

• Feudalism was a system of government where lords governed their land but had obligations to the ruler. 

• The general hierarchy of the European feudal system included the monarch, lords, knights (vassals), and peasants.  

• An estate granted to lords was known as manor. The land granted to a vassal was called a fief.

The Self-Sufficiency of the Manor System

1. Agricultural Production: The manor had its own farmland, where peasants (serfs) grew crops like wheat, barley, and oats. These crops provided food for the entire manor, reducing the need for external trade.

2. Livestock and Resources: Manors kept animals such as cattle, pigs, and chickens for food, clothing, and other necessities. They also had forests for wood and other natural resources used for building and heating.

3. Crafts and Labor: Manors included workshops for blacksmithing, weaving, and other crafts, allowing them to produce tools, clothing, and goods needed for daily life, all within the manor walls.

4. Trade and Limited External Interaction: While manors were largely self-sufficient, some goods might be traded at local markets or fairs, but for the most part, the manor was designed to meet the basic needs of its population without relying on outside sources.

Economic Advancements in the Medieval Ages

• Agricultural Revolution: The adoption of the three-field system, iron plows, and windmills increased food production, leading to population growth and urbanization.

• Trade and Commerce: The expansion of trade networks, including fairs and marketplaces, connected cities and regions, while the rise of guilds regulated crafts and trade.

• Role of Jewish Moneylenders: Restrictions on Christian moneylending led many Jews to become moneylenders, offering loans at interest, which played a key role in medieval economic activity despite societal prejudices.

The Code of Chivalry in Medieval Society

• Chivalry was a code of conduct among medieval knights emphasizing virtues such as bravery, honor, and respect for women.

• Here are three examples of the code of chivalry:

  • A knight rescues a peasant family from a fire, showing bravery and compassion for those in need.

  • A knight defends the weak and protects the innocent, regardless of their social status.

  • A knight upholds honesty and loyalty, keeping promises made to lords and comrades, even at great personal risk.

MONASTERIES AND EDUCATION

The Influence of Medieval Monasteries

• Monasteries were hubs of education, manuscript preservation, and charitable work, providing care for the poor, hospitality to travelers, and advancements in agriculture.

• Monastic life centered around a structured schedule of prayer, work, and study, with the primary goal of serving God and achieving spiritual growth.

• Monks followed the Benedictine Rule which emphasized obedience, poverty, chastity, and a balanced life of prayer and labor, creating a disciplined and communal lifestyle.

Medieval Universities

• Medieval universities were centers for advanced learning, teaching subjects like theology, medicine, and law, using Latin as the primary language of instruction.

• Universities responded to the need for educated Church members and local rulers.

• The first university was founded in Bologna, Italy, in 1088, initially focused on law and attracting scholars from across Europe.

MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE

THE CRUSADES

• The Crusades are a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims.

• In 1095, Pope Urban II called for the overthrow of Muslim Turks in the Holy Land, urging Christians to reclaim Jerusalem and promising spiritual rewards.

• The Crusades had significant effects, such as increased trade between Europe and the Middle East, cultural exchanges, and long-term tensions between religious groups.

THE DECLINE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Main causes of the Middle Ages Decline

• The Black Death and the Hundred Years' War both played significant roles in the decline of the Middle Ages, ultimately weakening medieval Europe’s social and political structures.

• The Black Death was a devastating plague that swept throughout Europe in the 14th century. It resulted in one-third of the population of Europe dying, leading to a decline in production and a rise in labor costs.

• The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) was a conflict between England and France over territory and the French throne, during which the longbow revolutionized warfare.

Similarities and Differences Between the Black Death and COVID-19

• The Black Death (1347–1351) was caused by bacteria (Yersinia pestis), the bubonic plague, and lacked effective medical treatments, while COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, benefitted from modern medicine and vaccines.

• The Black Death spread primarily through trade routes like the Silk Road and ships, while COVID-19 spread rapidly via modern global travel, prompting worldwide lockdowns and digital communication adaptations.

• Both pandemics caused widespread social and economic disruptions, including labor shortages, economic structure shifts, and changes in daily life.