Week 1 History and Approaches to Psychology.
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt aimed to separate psychology from physiology and philosophy, establishing it as an independent discipline.
His approach focused on breaking down mental experiences into their component parts.
In 1879, he founded the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig, Germany, the first psychology lab in Europe.
Wundt advocated for the study of the mind and its structures through measurement and control, pioneering experimental psychology.
Reaction Times: Studying reaction times was one of his experimental methods.
Example: The time it takes to catch a dropped object.
Introspection: Wundt utilized introspection, or self-examination, to analyze the structures of mental experience.
Example: Examining a tangerine's feel, smell, and the mental images it evokes.
The introspection process involved evaluating sensations, feelings and mental images.
Because of his approach based on introspection, Wundt is regarded as the father of experimental psychology.
William Titchener: A student of Wundt, brought his theories to America and coined the term "structuralism".
Limitations of Structuralism: Structuralism is no longer used due to several reasons:
It is too cumbersome, as sensations vary between individuals.
It cannot be applied to animal research.
It poses difficulties for individuals with perceptual anomalies or psychological l issues.
Functionalism
William James shifted the focus to the value and purpose of mental processes.
He opened a lab at Harvard University and taught the first class on the relations between physiology and psychology.
James is known as the father of psychology in America.
His book on psychology was affectionately called "The Jimmy" by his students.
James explored various topics, including pragmatism, religion, free will, stream of consciousness, the self, emotion, and functionalism.
Functionalism: Focuses on the value and purpose of mental experiences, suggesting that mental processes evolved for their life-preserving capabilities.
Heavily influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.
The purpose of emotions, such as fear, is believed to aid survival and adaptation.
Memory and play also contribute to survival and adaptation.
Limitations of Functionalism: It is no longer adhered to in psychology today due to a lack of sufficient empirical evidence and research.
Example of Structuralism vs. Functionalism:
Structuralism: Describes the components of going to university (leaving home, traffic, parking, classroom, notes, heading home).
Functionalism: Examines the purpose of going to university (gaining knowledge to survive an exam and better understand society).
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory divides psychic experience into three parts:
Id: Operates on the pleasure principle, driven by impulse, often related to sex and aggression.
Example: The impulse to steal cash because it feels good.
Superego: Represents the moral principle, guiding against acting on impulse.
Consequences for actions are inculcated through parents, society, and culture.
Ego: Functions on the reality principle, balancing the id and superego.
Example: The ego suggests getting a job to earn cash instead of stealing.
Levels of Consciousness:
Conscious: Awareness of one's current state, environment, and feelings.
Preconscious: Thoughts not currently in awareness but easily recalled.
Example: What you had for lunch yesterday.
Unconscious: Deeply buried thoughts that influence behavior without awareness, taking a deterministic approach.
Psychoanalysis: Freud's school of thought emphasizes the importance of the unconscious.
Psychosexual Developmental Stages: The libido moves through different body parts, each stage presenting unique conflicts:
Oral: Focus on the mouth.
Anal: Potty training issues.
Phallic: Oedipal complex (attraction to the opposite-sex parent).
Latency: Sublimation or redirection of the libido into activities like school, play, and friendships.
Genital: Healthy approach to sexuality.
Defense Mechanisms: The ego employs defense mechanisms to protect itself:
Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious, retrievable through therapy.
Denial: Refusing to acknowledge reality.
Example: Someone with multiple DUIs denying having a drinking problem.
Projection: Attributing one's feelings to others.
Example: Asking someone why they are sad when, in reality, it is you who is sad.
Dreams: Dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious," expressing themselves through:
Manifest Content: The literal content of the dream.
Latent Content: The symbolic meaning of the dream.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology, associated with Wertheimer, Kafka, and Kohler, emphasizes looking at the whole rather than its parts.
Principles: Example of Gestalt diagram illustrating rows of white and black dots.
Similarity: Grouping similar elements together.
Example: People dressed alike moving in the same direction are perceived as a group.
Figure-ground: Perceiving a vase or two faces depending on what is focused on.
Application: In daily life, a Gestalt approach involves considering the whole situation.
Example: Noticing that someone saying "I'm fine" may not be okay based on their voice and body language.
Behaviorism
An area of study in psychology dealing with behaviors.
Classical Conditioning: Making associations between a person and feeling that results in a physiological response.
Pavlov's famous experiment of ringing a bell when dogs were about to be fed.
Watson conditioned fearing into a child using classical conditioning.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner's experiment on enhancing the likelihood of smiling and saying hi when seing someone because of a positive response.
Positive Reinforcement: Positive reaction/outcome resulting in repeated behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Avoiding something unpleasant.
Operant conditioning involves operating on the environment, receiving feedback, and determining future behavior.
Skinner argued that humans are predictable, and their environment determines their behavior.
In his book "Beyond Freedom and Dignity", Skinner suggests that our environment makes choices for us, negating freedom and dignity.
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology emerged as a reaction to behaviorism, emphasizing human potential and inherent goodness.
It posits that humans are fundamentally good and make choices through free will.
Individuals are responsible for their lives and can correct bad choices.
Key Concepts:
Carl Rogers: Introduced the concept of a fully functioning individual and emphasized:
the importance of aligning the real self with the ideal self.
unconditional positive regard.
client-centered therapy.
Abraham Maslow: Advocated that a self-actualized person fulfilling their potential exhibits:
a hierarchy of basic needs: physiological, safety, love/belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization.
peak experiences involving reevaluation of life.
trustworthiness
transcendence - thinking about others
Humanists argue against the behaviorist reductionist view, asserting human dignity.
Cognitive Revolution
The cognitive revolution countered behaviorism by highlighting the importance of thoughts and memory.
Key Figures:
Uric Neisser: Authored the first book on cognitive psychology.
Noam Chomsky: Argued that language acquisition is predetermined and built into the brain through a language acquisition device.
Multicultural, Cross-Cultural, and Socio-Emotional Psychology
Kenneth and Mamie Clark:
First African Americans to earn doctorate degrees at Columbia University.
Conducted the baby doll experiment, revealing that many black children preferred white dolls, influencing the Brown versus Board of Education case.
George Sanchez:
Addressed prejudice in testing immigrant children, particularly Hispanic children.
Argued that tests were prejudicial and failed to accurately assess children's knowledge due to language barriers and unfamiliar contexts.