Chapter 7 Notes: Attitudes, Beliefs and Consistency (PSYC121 SU 2.3)
Attitudes, Beliefs and Consistency – Study Notes
1) What are attitudes and why are they important
Attitudes: global evaluations toward some object or issue.
Beliefs: pieces of information about something; facts or opinions.
Dual attitudes: different evaluations of the same attitude object carried by the same person (automatic vs deliberate).
Automatic attitudes: very fast evaluative, 'gut-level' responses that people don’t think much about.
Deliberate attitudes: more reflective responses that people think about carefully.
People may not be aware of all their own attitudes.
Attitudes help deal with the complex social world; humans need a broad assortment of attitudes, more than many animals.
As soon as you know what something is, you start to know whether you like or dislike it (in the first microsecond of thought).
Implication for impartiality: to be impartial as a judge (or referee) may require overcoming one’s attitudes.
Attitudes are tremendously helpful in making choices: possessing an attitude increases ease, speed and quality of decision making.
Certainty about attitudes can be good for health (healthier outcomes in some university transition studies).
Review Concept Chart (summary points):
Attitudes: global evaluations toward objects/issues.
Beliefs: pieces of information.
Dual attitudes: automatic vs deliberate.
Automatic vs deliberate attitudes defined.
People may not be aware of all attitudes.
Attitudes help deal with the social world.
Immediate evaluative response in the first microsecond.
Impartiality may require overcoming attitudes.
Attitudes aid in decision making.
2) How attitudes are formed
Mere exposure effect:
Tendency to come to like things simply because they are encountered repeatedly.
Robert Zajonc (1968): mere repeated exposure enhances attitude toward a stimulus.
Tests with novel stimuli (Turkish words, Chinese-like characters, yearbook photos): more exposure → more liking.
More meaningful stimuli (faces of people from different races) show similar effects for unfamiliar faces.
Advertising leverage: repeated exposure builds positive attitudes.
Exceptions: if you start with dislike, repetition can decrease liking; threatening stimuli may become less liked with exposure.
Embodied attitudes:
Darwin proposed attitudes are evident in body language and movement (e.g., leaning toward/away).
Bodily movements can influence attitudes (nodding vs shaking head influences agreement).
Classical conditioning:
Learning where a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to evoke a conditioned response (CR).
Example: perfume scent or music linked to a person/situation.
May help explain prejudice when social groups are repeatedly associated with negative information in media.
Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning):
Behaviours followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated; punished behaviours are less likely.
Example: praise for doing well on a psychology test → more positive attitude toward psychology.
Example: alcohol use as a relief from unhappiness reinforces drinking.
Social learning (observational learning, imitation, vicarious learning):
People imitate behaviours seen being rewarded; less likely to imitate if punished.
Observing others’ rewards/punishments shapes general attitudes and behaviours.
Examples: teens learn attitudes by watching peers; social media (likes) inform attitudes; Facebook/Twitter/YouTube amplify social learning dynamics.
Attitude polarisation:
Attitudes become more extreme as people reflect on them; contemplation can strengthen initial attitudes.
Attitude formation factors (three broad categories):
Experience: direct personal experience or observation.
Social factors: social roles and social norms influencing attitudes.
Learning and conditioning: classical, operant, and observational learning; advertising usage.
Observation: learning by watching others and interpreting the observed information.
Review Concept Chart (formation terms):
Mere exposure effect, Embodied attitudes, Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning, Social learning, Attitude polarisation.
Equal confirmatory/disconfirmatory evidence can strengthen initial attitudes (polarisation).
Ingroup vs outgroup evidence: greater acceptance of ingroup sources than outgroup sources.
3) How people avoid inconsistency and adapt attitudes (cognitive consistency and dissonance)
Drive for consistency: central to several theories; inconsistency among thoughts and between thoughts and behaviour creates inner tension.
Consistency theories share three elements:
They specify the conditions for consistency/inconsistency among cognitions, behaviours, and beliefs.
They assume inconsistency is unpleasant and motivates restoration of consistency.
They specify how consistency can be restored.
Path of least resistance: people tend to change attitudes rather than behaviours to restore consistency.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT):
Dissonance: uncomfortable feeling when two cognitions conflict (e.g., smoking is bad but you smoke).
Inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, prompting rationalisation or attitude change.
Media and cognition: selective exposure and filter bubbles:
Selective exposure: seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.
Filter bubbles: online algorithms that expose users to attitude-consistent content.
COVID example: choosing to attend a gathering despite rules, then justifying the behaviour to reduce dissonance.
Additional CDT concepts:
Effort justification: people who expend more effort justify that effort as worthwhile.
Suffering for a group can increase liking for that group (initiation effects).
Choice is necessary for dissonance and attitude change; post-decision dissonance reduces after choosing among alternatives.
Dissonance arousal is a hallmark; dissonance can be reduced by changing attitudes or rationalising behaviour.
Interpersonal and self-presentation dynamics:
People care about how others perceive consistency; self-presentation can amplify dissonance effects.
Public commitments (e.g., writing with your name) increase dissonance if attitudes contradict written statements.
Dissonance and media: selective exposure and filter bubbles reinforce pre-existing views; education can broaden mind and reduce dissonance by exposing people to new ideas.
Illustrative examples:
COVID-19: social distancing compliance vs. social desire to attend events.
Water conservation: people acknowledge its importance but may claim limited personal impact.
Review Concept Chart (consistency terms):
Inconsistency leads to tension; three features of consistency theories; cognitive dissonance; selective exposure; filter bubbles; effort justification; coercive or voluntary suffering; choice; arousal; interpersonal/public self-presentation; media implications.
4) The relationship between attitudes and behaviour
Psychology as a behavioural science seeks to predict and explain behaviour; attitudes are thought to guide behaviour, but this is not always straightforward.
Attacking attitudes: early view by Allport; counterpoint by Wicker (1969) suggested attitudes often do not predict behaviour well; sparked debate.
Defending attitudes: researchers sought ways to strengthen the link between attitude and behaviour.
General attitudes vs specific behaviours:
A general attitude toward helping may poorly predict a specific behaviour (e.g., willingness to donate blood due to needle fear).
Measuring very specific attitudes toward a specific behaviour improves prediction of that behaviour.
Behaviour aggregation:
Aggregating multiple related behaviours (e.g., blood donation, charitable giving, volunteering, helping a disabled person) yields a stronger link between overall pro-social attitude and cumulative behaviour.
Broad attitude in context:
General attitudes can predict behaviour when they are consciously salient and shape interpretation of the immediate choice context.
Attitude accessibility:
How easily an attitude comes to mind strongly influences its impact on thought, emotion and behaviour.
Highly accessible attitudes predict behaviour more reliably.
Behavioural intentions and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB):
Behavioural intentions are a key predictor of actual behaviour.
TPB components (Figure 7.4):
Attitude toward the behaviour (A)
Subjective norms (SN): perceived social pressure from significant others
Perceived behavioural control (PBC): perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour
Proposed relationship (stylised):
A meta-analysis of 185 studies found that the TPB explains about (i.e., 27% of the variance in behaviour).
The A–B problem (Attitude–Behaviour):
Inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviours (B) is common; link often weaker than expected.
Conditions for stronger attitude–behaviour links:
Attitude measures are very specific.
Behaviours are aggregated across time and situations.
Attitudes are consciously prominent and influence decision thinking.
Attitudes are highly accessible (come to mind easily).
Summary takeaway: attitudes can predict behaviour, but reliability improves with specificity, aggregation, conscious salience, and accessibility; TPB provides a robust framework for integrating attitudes with social and control factors.
5) The concept of beliefs and believing
Beliefs vs believing:
Automatic system tends to believe; deliberate system can override with doubt.
The question: when you understand something, you tend to believe it automatically; disbelief or doubt may require conscious effort to override initial belief.
Belief perseverance: once beliefs form, they are resistant to change even when evidence contradicts them.
Explaining the opposite theory can reduce belief perseverance.
Coping and assumptive worlds:
Coping involves beliefs that help people manage trauma and regain functioning.
Assumptive worlds: people live according to assumptions about reality; misfortune can violate these assumptions (benevolent world, just world, self-worth).
Religious beliefs and coping:
Religion provides explanations and coping benefits, regardless of falsity; can speed up recovery after trauma and reduce reliance on ineffective coping (e.g., alcohol).
Religion may hinder or complicate coping when faced with cognitive/emotional conflict; faith persists alongside existential questions.
Irrational beliefs:
Beliefs lacking rational basis (e.g., paranormal beliefs, superstitions, belief that random events even out in short run) have disadvantages (higher anxiety, poorer coping, lower self-esteem).
Irrational beliefs are often maintained despite contradictory evidence.
Belief and coping mechanisms:
Downward comparison: comparing oneself to those worse off to feel better.
Upward comparison: less common; can be used but is usually less helpful.
Restoring self-esteem and perceived control are important coping strategies.
Religious and other coping beliefs can facilitate recovery by providing meaning and a sense of control.
Key terms (beliefs and believing):
A–B problem; accessibility; assumptive worlds; belief perseverance; coping; downward/upward comparison; religious beliefs; irrational beliefs.
6) Quick quizzes and key quick-reference points
Test Yourself — Attitudes and basics (answers referenced in chapter):
1) Which concept is pieces of information about something? → Beliefs
2) Which is a global evaluation? → Attitudes
3) Fast vs slow evaluation: automatic vs deliberate → Answer: automatic attitude; deliberate attitude
4) Dual attitudes refer to automatic and deliberate attitudes
Quick quiz — Attitude formation (answers):
1) What is mere exposure? → becomes more favorable with more exposure
2) Embodied attitudes: body language can influence attitudes
3) Classical conditioning: emotions linked to stimuli via conditioning
4) Operant conditioning: behaviours rewarded are more likely to be repeated
Quick quiz — Consistency and dissonance (answers):
1) Dissonance in the example with environment and actions → likely to feel cognitive dissonance
2) Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that with low external justification, dissonance will be high and attitude change will occur
3) Effort justification: suffering leads to liking
4) Avoiding information that differs from beliefs → selective exposure
Test Yourself — Do attitudes really predict behaviours? (answers):
1) Theory example: LaPiere (1934) results: Less than 10% predicted to accommodate (i.e., actual behaviour differed from stated attitudes)
2) Wicker (1969): found weak attitude–behaviour link; proposed that attitude might be unrelated to behaviour
3) Allport: attitudes are important in psychology
4) Best predictor of seeing a Harry Potter film: attitudes toward the films (or the franchise)
Test Yourself — Beliefs and believing (answers):
1) Believing is faster than disbelieving (automatic belief often occurs quickly)
2) The tendency to resist giving up existing beliefs despite contrary data is called belief perseverance
3) Assumptive world belief violation example: all of the above could violate the world being benevolent/fair and the self as worthy
7) Key terms (glossary snapshot)
A–B problem: the inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviours (B).
Accessibility: how easily an attitude comes to mind.
Assumptive worlds: beliefs about reality that can be violated by misfortune.
Attitude polarisation: attitudes become more extreme when reflected upon.
Attitudes: global evaluations toward objects/issues.
Automatic attitudes: quick, non-conscious evaluations.
Beliefs: information about the world.
Behavioral intentions: plans to perform a behaviour; central to the theory of planned behaviour.
Cognitive dissonance: discomfort from inconsistent cognitions or behaviours.
Cognitive coping: beliefs that help cope with trauma; re-evaluations, restoration of self-esteem, control, etc.
Assumptive worlds: benevolent world; just world; self-worth beliefs.
Belief perseverance: resistance to changing beliefs.
Downward/Upward comparison: coping strategies in cognitive coping.
Downward comparison: compare to worse-off others; upward comparison: compare to better-off others.
Filter bubbles: online exposure to attitude-consistent content.
Mere exposure effect: familiarity breeds liking.
Operant conditioning: learning via rewards and punishments.
Perceived behavioural control: belief about ability to perform the behaviour.
Social learning: learning via observation and imitation.
Selective exposure: seeking information that confirms beliefs.
Subjective norms: perceived social pressure to perform or not perform a behaviour.
Theory of Planned Behaviour: framework integrating attitude, norms, and control to predict behaviour.
Unconditioned/conditioned stimuli and responses: classical conditioning terms.
8) Chapter 7 at-a-glance: summary highlights
Attitudes are fundamental but not perfectly predictive of behaviour; specificity, salience, accessibility, and aggregation improve prediction.
Beliefs and believing follow a dynamic pattern: automatic belief formation, potential override by deliberate doubt, and the persistence of beliefs (belief perseverance).
The duplex mind model highlights the interaction of automatic and deliberate processes across attitudes and beliefs.
Real-world relevance: social media (like counts) as a form of social learning; selective exposure and filter bubbles shape public opinion; attitude formation and change have ethical and practical implications in media, politics, and health.
9) Notable empirical anchors and examples
Mere exposure tests: Turkish words, yearbook photos; more exposure → more liking.
LaPiere (1934): survey after travel; 92% would not accommodate Chinese guests, while actual experience showed much higher accommodation rates.
Festinger & Carlsmith (Money Matters): pay $1 vs $20; small pay produced greater attitude change due to dissonance resolution.
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) meta-analysis: for predicting behaviour.
Initiation studies: more severe initiation -> higher liking for the group (effort justification).
Bobo doll experiments (Bandura): modelling aggression; social learning explains formation of attitudes towards aggression.
Religious beliefs and coping: coping benefits regardless of empirical truth value; fosters resilience after trauma.
10) Connections to broader psychology themes
Attitudes and beliefs are interwoven with moral reasoning, social influence, and identity.
Cognitive dissonance sits at the intersection of personal consistency and social presentation; dissonance management shapes choices and self-concept.
Social learning and media literacy are critical in an era of online information ecosystems, where selective exposure and filter bubbles can reinforce biases.
11) Practical takeaways for exams and application
Distinguish attitudes (global evaluations) from beliefs (informational content).
Recognise automatic vs deliberate attitudes; consider when each might dominate judgment or action.
Use the Theory of Planned Behavior to predict behaviour: consider attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control to estimate intention and likely behaviour.
Be able to describe major attitude formation mechanisms with an example for each: mere exposure, embodied attitudes, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning.
Understand cognitive dissonance as a mechanism for attitude change and the conditions that strengthen or weaken dissonance effects (e.g., choice, justification, perceived control).
Recognise the limitations of attitudes as predictors of behaviour, and know how aggregation and specificity can improve predictions.
Be able to discuss belief perseverance and coping strategies in response to trauma, as well as the role of religiosity and assumptive worlds.
12) Practical formulas and numeric anchors (study-friendly)
Theory of Planned Behavior (stylised):
TPB predictive power (meta-analysis):
(27% of variance in behaviour).
Classical conditioning schema (Pavlov):
Unconditioned stimulus (US) → unconditioned response (UR); Neutral stimulus (NS) paired with US → Conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits conditioned response (CR).
Money Matters (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959):
Payoffs: ; small payoff led to greater attitude change due to dissonance resolution; large payoff did not.
Key empirical data point:
LaPiere (1934): 92% of establishments refused Chinese guests when asked afterwards about willingness to serve them; actual behaviour contradicted stated attitudes.
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