Chapter 6: Making War and Republican Governments, 1776–1789 — Comprehensive Study Notes

The Revolution in Perspective: Big Ideas and Changes

Identify the big question: How revolutionary was the American Revolution? What political, social, and economic changes did it produce, and what stayed the same?
Local loyalties and choices during war: Patriots vs Loyalists divided families and communities; examples include Robert Gassaway in Frederick County, MD opposing Patriot allegiance, and Nathaniel Jones in Farmington, CT jailed for neutrality.
Local governance and political identity: Patriot control of local governments helped mobilize support for the war, organize militia, and build a Continental Army; soldiers and volunteers tied military service to political commitment and citizenship.
Shift from subjects to citizens: War and military service helped transform political identity from kinship/local ties to broader civic bonds with distant governmental institutions (David Ramsay’s remark: “From subjects to citizens the difference is immense”).
Republican revolutions and Atlantic impact: Patriot moves toward republicanism inspired revolutions elsewhere (France, Spanish colonies, and later movements in the Americas). Francisco de Miranda noted the independence of Anglo-American colonies as a preliminary to his own movement.
The war’s long arc: The conflict helped replace an Atlantic colonial system with an American system of new nations; the war laid groundwork for republican institutions and the Constitution.

The Trials of War, 1776–1778: North and the North’s Turning Points

Key challenge: The British could muster superior numbers, wealth, and naval power, while Americans lacked a strong central government and predictable revenue.
Howe’s strategy and Washington’s cautious defense: Howe sought to isolate New England and capture the Continental Army; Washington aimed to avoid major defeats and stretch British forces, focusing on defensive strategies and attrition.
The North’s early map of battles: Long Island (1776) defeat for Americans; Washington’s retreat; Cross of the Delaware and the victories at Trenton (Dec 1776) and Princeton (Jan 1777) boosted morale.
Saratoga as turning point: Burgoyne’s invasion from Canada stalled; Gates’s American forces defeated Burgoyne at Bennington (Aug 1777) and Saratoga (Oct 1777); surrender of Burgoyne marked a decisive turning point and diplomatic leverage with France.
Consequences of Saratoga: Diplomatic breakthrough—France agreed to a military alliance, recognizing American independence and providing money, supplies, and troops. The Paris alliance of 1778 specified that neither side would seek separate peace while the other achieved its aims; this shifted the war from a regional rebellion to an international conflict.
The perils of war: British naval blockade reduced American trade; occupation of major ports disrupted economy; population shifts occurred (e.g., NYC declined from 21,000 to 10,000). These conditions forced a wartime economy reorientation (farmers grew grain to feed armies; tobacco exports declined in Chesapeake).

The Path to Victory, 1778–1783: Diplomacy, South, and Victory

The French alliance: In 1778, France joined the war, offering money, supplies, troops, and naval support; the alliance tied American independence to broader European power dynamics. Vergennes leveraged French rivalry with Britain to secure explicit commitments.
The British southern strategy (1778–1781): Britain shifted focus to the South to exploit slave dynamics and Loyalist support; captures included Savannah (1778), Charleston (1780), and later forced engagements in the Carolinas.
Slavery and the triangular war: The war became a triangular conflict in the South, as Britain recruited enslaved people (Dunmore’s Proclamation; Philipsburg Proclamation) and attempted to incite enslaved populations to escape; roughly 30,000 African Americans sought freedom with British lines by 1783. Washington initially barred Black enlistment, then allowed Black soldiers; approximately 5,000 enslaved and free Blacks fought for Patriots by the war’s end.
Guerrilla warfare and Carolina campaigns: Francis Marion (the Swamp Fox) led irregulars in South Carolina; Nathaniel Greene used militia leadership to neutralize British regulars; King’s Mountain (1780) and Cowpens (1781) were pivotal Patriot victories; Cornwallis’s Virginia campaign ended in surrender at Yorktown (1781) after Rochambeau and Washington coordinated a Franco-American operation.
Valuing diplomacy and Franco-American collaboration: The French contributed to victory at Yorktown by providing a combined Franco-American force and heavy naval support under Admiral de Grasse; the victory forced Britain to reconsider its war strategy and ultimately led to negotiations.
Valley Forge and military reform: Valley Forge (winter 1777–1778) was a critical test; Baron von Steuben’s training modernized the Continental Army, instilling drill and discipline that transformed a ragtag force into a more professional army.
The war’s domestic effects: Economic distress, inflation, and supply shortages led to social and political upheaval, including women’s increased public roles and the emergence of price controls and debates about regulation; the war also unsettled Loyalists, Native Americans, and enslaved populations.

Creating Republican Institutions, 1776–1787: Debates about Power, Representation, and Rights

State constitutions and the democratic impulse: By 1776, most states drafted new constitutions; Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania moved rapidly to establish republican governments. The Declaration of Independence asserted popular sovereignty: “governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.”
Pennsylvania’s democratic revolution and conservative counterweights: Pennsylvania’s 1776 constitution created unicameral legislature with broad voting rights and no governor; it sparked concern among conservatives (Adams warned of “confusion and every evil work”). The attempt to balance democracy with governance led to later revisions and proposals for checks and balances.
The conservative counterweights to direct democracy: John Adams’s Thoughts on Government proposed a mixed government with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches, a bicameral legislature, an elected governor with veto power, and an appointed judiciary to curb democratic excesses. These ideas influenced New York (1777), South Carolina (1778) and Massachusetts reforms.
Women and republican ideals: Judith Sargent Murray and Abigail Adams advocated for women’s rights and education; debates about political participation and property rights for women emerged but did not achieve universal equality; Massachusetts granted some schooling rights for girls in the 1790s; progress toward gender equality continued in limited forms.
Loyalists, Native Americans, and slaves: The Revolution sparked exodus of Loyalists; property seizures often occurred, but many Loyalists were not fully compensated. Native American land claims led to further conflicts and the push for westward expansion. Slavery presented a unique challenge to republican ideals, particularly as the Confederation and later the Constitution addressed representation and slave trade.
The Articles of Confederation: The new government formed in 1777 operated under the Articles; it lacked a centralized executive, judiciary, and power to tax; required unanimity to amend; it could declare war, negotiate with foreign nations, and requisition funds from states but lacked enforcement mechanisms. These weaknesses foreshadowed calls for a stronger central government.
Fiscal crisis and debt: The Confederation could not reliably raise revenue; it depended on state contributions and issued debt certificates and paper money, which depreciated rapidly. Robert Morris attempted to stabilize finances and promote a national banking system (Bank of North America) and tariffs, but these efforts faced resistance from states like Rhode Island and New York.
Debates over postwar expansion and settlement: The Northwest Territory (lands north of the Ohio River) required governance; Congress established the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which banned slavery in the Northwest and created a pathway to statehood with democratic governance and education funding.
The Northwest Ordinance specifics: - 1784: Jefferson’s draft proposed statehood through population growth.
- 1785: Land Ordinance established a rectangular survey system with a standard of 1 per acre and a township grid: each township is 6 ext{ miles by } 6 ext{ miles } (36 ext{ square miles}), containing 23{,}040 ext{ acres}; sections of 640 ext{ acres} each; half the township was to be sold in blocks of 23{,}040 ext{ acres}, with the rest in 640 ext{ acre} parcels.
- 1787: Northwest Ordinance created the Northwest Territory, barred slavery north of the Ohio River, earmarked funds for schools, and instituted a process for governing territories until they could apply for statehood (governor, judges, territorial legislature at 5{,}000 free adult men; statehood at 60{,}000.)
Shays’s Rebellion (1786–1787): A protest by debt-ridden farmers in Massachusetts against aggressive tax and debt collection; demonstrated weaknesses of the Articles and fed the demand for a stronger central government. The rebellion highlighted tensions between wealthy creditors and common farmers, and underscored the need for constitutional reform.

The Philadelphia Convention and the Constitution: Designing a Stronger Union

The constitutional moment: The 1787 Philadelphia Convention was convened to revise the Articles but ultimately drafted a new constitution emphasizing a stronger national government.
The key plans and debates: - Virginia Plan (Madison): favored a strong central government with national authority, the people as the source of political legitimacy, and three-tiered representation with a powerful national legislature; feared that state sovereignty would be curtailed and that large states would dominate small ones.
- New Jersey Plan (Paterson): preserved state sovereignty with a unicameral legislature and equal representation for states; allowed Congress to raise revenue and regulate commerce, but did not overturn state laws.
- Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan): resolved representation by creating a bicameral legislature: Senate with two representatives per state, House of Representatives with representation based on population; combined elements of both plans and balanced large vs small states’ interests.
- Presidency and judiciary: established an independent executive (president) and a national judiciary; the people would elect the lower house, while state legislatures would elect the upper house; the federal government would be granted a broad, but not unlimited, set of powers.
- Slavery and representation: the Three-Fifths Compromise counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for purposes of representation and taxation; this provision increased Southern states’ political influence in the new Congress.
- Commerce and the federal government: the Constitution granted broad powers to regulate interstate and foreign commerce and to tax; it created the supremacy of federal law over state laws, blocked the states from issuing paper money, and protected the payment of national debts.
- Immigration and the slave trade: the Constitution delayed congressional power to regulate the slave trade until 1808; there was extensive debate over whether and how to regulate importation of enslaved people.
- The fugitive clause: allowed masters to reclaim enslaved people who escaped to other states, reinforcing property rights in enslaved people while attempting to mollify anti-slavery sentiments.
Ratification dynamics: The Constitution required ratification by conventions in nine states; Federalists promoted the Constitution with a campaign of pamphlets and the promise of a Bill of Rights; Antifederalists warned about potential tyranny and the loss of states’ rights and demanded explicit protections for individual rights.
The Constitution’s approval process and state-by-state ratification: Massachusetts, Virginia, New York were pivotal; Connecticut, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire achieved ratification with varying degrees of political compromise; by 1790, almost all states ratified, but the debate over ratification continued into later state conventions.
The Federalist Papers and popular sovereignty: The Federalists argued that a strong central government could guard republican liberty; the Antifederalists warned against centralized tyranny; the debate centered on the balance between liberty, efficiency, and protection of property.

Slavery, Liberty, and Citizenship: The Constitutional Debates

The debates on slavery at the Constitutional Convention revealed deep regional tensions:- Some delegates (e.g., Luther Martin) proposed allowing Congress to regulate the slave trade; others (e.g., Charles C. Pinckney, John Rutledge) argued slavery was essential to Southern economy and political power, and opposed abolition or strict regulation.
- Northern delegation (e.g., Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut) argued that slavery presented moral and political problems, and some suggested limiting or ending the importation of slaves and promoting gradual emancipation; Southern delegates resisted measures that would threaten slaveholding economies.
- The Three-Fifths Compromise resolved how enslaved people would be counted for representation and taxation, significantly boosting Southern influence in the House of Representatives; it also postponed a direct federal ban on the slave trade until 1808.
Slavery and the Constitution: The document avoided explicit language condemning or endorsing slavery; it referred to enslaved people indirectly as “persons” rather than “slaves,” and it included the fugitive slave clause, reinforcing the property rights of slaveholders while acknowledging some opposition to slavery among Northern delegates.
The political geography of ratification and slavery: The distribution of power between free and slaveholding states shaped the ratification dynamics and political compromises; Northern states favored limits on slavery in the long run, while Southern states sought to protect the institution’s political and economic foundations.

The Aftermath: The Ratification, the New Government, and the Impact on Society

The constitutional settlement and its legitimacy: The Constitution created a strong central government with a system of checks and balances, designed to prevent tyranny while producing an effective governing framework for a large republic.
The Bill of Rights: The early Federalists promised a Bill of Rights to gain ratification in crucial states; these amendments would later guarantee essential civil liberties and limit the power of the federal government.
Federalists vs Antifederalists after ratification: The political landscape hardened into Federalists (supporters of a strong central government and the new constitution) and Antifederalists (advocates for states’ rights and strong protections for individual rights). The negotiation over the Bill of Rights helped bridge divides.
The Constitution’s enduring framework: The two-level structure of government (federal and state) and the principle of popular sovereignty remained central to American political life; the Constitution balanced liberty, order, and the capacity to govern a diverse and expanding nation.

Key People and Roles

George Washington: Military leader whose defensive strategy preserved the revolution; later became the first U.S. president.
Horatio Gates, Benedict Arnold, Nathanael Greene, and other generals: Key players in the North and South theaters; Greene’s strategy of using militia leadership helped shift the Carolinas in favor of the Patriots.
General Burgoyne, General Howe, General St. Leger: British commanders whose missteps contributed to American victories, particularly Saratoga and Yorktown.
Baron von Steuben: Prussian officer who drilled and reformed the Continental Army at Valley Forge.
Marquis de Lafayette, Rochambeau: French officers who assisted the Americans and played a decisive role in the Yorktown victory.
Robert Morris: Chief treasury official who financed the war and promoted national financial reform; proposed banking solutions and revenue measures.
Judith Sargent Murray, Abigail Adams: Early advocates for women’s education and political rights; debated the scope of women’s public roles during the republic.
Gouverneur Morris: Advocate for strong central government and a prominent voice in slavery debates at the Convention.

Economics, Currency, and the War Economy

Currency problems and inflation: Continental currency depreciated rapidly; families and states faced difficulty converting paper money into goods (e.g., 7 in Continental bills bought goods worth 1 in gold in 1779; 1780: 42 Continental dollars to 1 silver dollar; 1781: 146 to 1); illustrating accelerating inflation and a hidden currency tax on citizens.
Financing the war: Congress lacked authority to tax; Robert Morris raised funds through loans from France and the Netherlands and sold Continental loan certificates to thousands of firms and individuals. The Confederation issued around 200{,}000{,}000 in paper currency between 1776–1779; the currency’s value declined rapidly.
Public finance reforms: Morris helped establish the Bank of North America to stabilize the currency; debates over centralized taxation and tariffs reflected differing state interests and the challenge of building a stable fiscal system.
The price of war: People faced shortages, supply disruptions, and inflation; price ceilings were imposed in some places (e.g., 1777 in New England), but many opponents resisted price controls, arguing for market-based pricing.

The War’s Social and Cultural Dimensions

Women’s wartime roles: Women bore increased burdens in farms and households while men fought; complaints and call for price relief and more involvement in governance increased, as reflected in Elizabeth, NJ’s women and Sarah Cobb Paine’s letters. Some argued this would lead to expanded rights, while others resisted.
Civilian hardship and moral dilemmas: Wartime looting, conscription, and raids affected civilian life; communities experienced dislocation and violence as Loyalists and Patriots clashed. Committees of safety were formed to collect taxes and seize property from those who refused to join the war effort.
Debates about public virtue and the role of the state: The war tested republican virtue; some argued for greater state intervention and economic regulation (e.g., price controls); others warned against government overreach and the danger to liberty.
Slavery and emancipation questions after the war: The revolution did not immediately end slavery; debates continued about emancipation, the rights of enslaved people, and how to integrate new rights with the property regime of slavery. Northern states began to restrict slavery, while Southern states defended it vigorously.

The Military and Diplomatic Turning Points: Summary of Key Events

1776: Battle of Long Island; Washington’s retreat; the crossing of the Delaware and victory at Trenton; Princeton; Morristown as winter headquarters.
1777: Saratoga turning point; British plan to isolate New England; Burgoyne’s surrender; American diplomatic gains with France.
1778–1781: The French alliance, Southern campaign, and the war’s expansion into the Atlantic world; battles in Georgia and the Carolinas; Cornwallis’s campaigns and the Yorktown victory in 1781.
1783: Treaty of Paris recognizes American independence; British cede territory east of the Mississippi; Spanish and French terms considered; U.S. gains fishing rights and navigation on the Mississippi; issues regarding Loyalists and Indian lands addressed in treaties.
1786–1787: Shays’s Rebellion highlights the need for a stronger central government and spurs constitutional reform discussions.
1787: The Philadelphia Convention drafts a new constitution; Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan) resolves representation; Three-Fifths Compromise shapes representation and taxation; slavery and the slave trade contentious, but compromises negotiated.
1789: The new constitutional framework in operation; debates over Ratification resolved; Federalist victory and establishment of a new governmental order.

Connections to Prior Lectures and Real-World Relevance

Foundational principles: The revolution created a practical test of republican ideals (consent of the governed, virtue, and limited government) and the tension between liberty and property.
Economic and political modernization: The war catalyzed the development of a centralized fiscal system, national debt management, and a more complex political economy.
The global dimension: The American victory was not merely a domestic affair; it reshaped European power dynamics and inspired other independence movements (e.g., in France, Spanish America).
Ongoing debates: The text foreshadows later debates about federal power, civil rights, and the balance between centralized authority and states’ rights—debates that would continue to shape American politics for generations.

Key Terms and Concepts to Remember

Battle of Long Island (1776)
Battle of Saratoga (1777)
Valley Forge (1777–1778)
Philipsburg Proclamation (1779)
Battle of Yorktown (1781)
currency tax (economic effects of depreciation and inflation) ext{currency tax}
Articles of Confederation (weak central government)
Northwest Ordinance (1787) and territorial governance
Shays’s Rebellion (1786–1787)
Virginia Plan vs New Jersey Plan; Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan)
Three-Fifths Compromise (representation and taxation) frac{3}{5}
Federalists vs Antifederalists; The Federalist Papers
The Constitution of 1787; Bill of Rights promised
Debates over slavery and the Atlantic slave trade; eventual compromise
The Northwest Territory; westward expansion and Native American lands
The role of women: Judith Sargent Murray, Abigail Adams
The Franco-American alliance; Lafayette; Rochambeau; de Grasse; Vergennes
The balance of power between federal and state governments; checks and balances
The economic reforms: Bank of North America; national debt; currency depreciation

Timeline of Major Events (1776–1789)

1776: Independence declared; state constitutions drafted; Meantime, Washington’s victories begin; Mezzanine of political change begins.
1777: Saratoga turns the tide; alliance with France established.
1778: Franco-American alliance solidified; French troops and naval support arrive; British shift to the South.
1781: Yorktown victory; Cornwallis’s surrender; Franco-American alliance proves decisive.
1783: Treaty of Paris ends the war; independence recognized; territorial issues resolved with British ceding lands east of the Mississippi.
1784–1787: Northwest Ordinances established; western lands organized; Slavery restrictions north of the Ohio River; western settlements begin to form new states.
1786–1787: Shays’s Rebellion highlights need for a stronger central government; Annapolis Convention calls for reforms.
1787: Philadelphia Convention drafts the Constitution; debates over representation, slavery, and national authority; Great Compromise resolves representation,
1788–1789: Ratification by nine states; Bill of Rights debates; new government begins to operate.

Questions for Review and Practice

Why did Saratoga qualify as a turning point in both military and diplomatic terms?
How did the Franco-American alliance reshape the strategic calculus of the war?
What were the major weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, and how did they motivate the constitutional reform?
How did the Three-Fifths Compromise affect political power in the new government?
In what ways did the revolution challenge and transform concepts of liberty, property, and citizenship for different groups (Loyalists, Native Americans, enslaved people, women)?
What were the major differences between Federalists and Antifederalists, and how did their debates shape the Constitution’s final form?
How did the Northwest Ordinance address questions of settlement, governance, and slavery?
How did Shays’s Rebellion influence the push for a stronger national government?
What role did debt, inflation, and currency depreciation play in politics and policy during the Confederation era?
How did early state constitutions reflect the tension between democratic ideals and property-based political power?

Connections to Mathematical and Quantitative Details (LaTeX-formatted)

Slavery representation compromise: ext{Represented population counted as } 3/5 ext{ of enslaved people for representation and taxation.}
Land division in the Northwest: One township is 6 ext{ miles} imes 6 ext{ miles} = 36 ext{ square miles} = 23{,}040 ext{ acres}. Each section is 640 ext{ acres}. Half of townships sold in blocks of 23{,}040 ext{ acres}; rest in 640 ext{ acre} parcels.
Currency depreciation contrasts: In 1779, 7 ext{ Continental dollars} o 1 ext{ gold/ silver unit}; by 1780, about 42:1; by 1781, about 146:1; illustrating accelerating inflation and a hidden currency tax on citizens.

Final Thoughts: Significance and Practical Implications

The Revolution produced a durable political framework that balanced federal power with states’ rights, while also embedding enduring tensions around slavery, Native American land rights, and gender equality.
It established a model of constitutional government that emphasized national sovereignty, popular sovereignty, checks and balances, and a sophisticated taxation and debt management system—though its early versions were imperfect and faced ongoing political challenges.
The era’s legacy extends beyond national borders, providing inspiration for republican movements worldwide and shaping the trajectory of modern democracies.

Summary of Important People, Dates, and Events

Important People

George Washington: Commander of the Continental Army, first U.S. President.
Baron von Steuben: Prussian officer who trained the Continental Army at Valley Forge.
Marquis de Lafayette & Rochambeau: French officers crucial for American victory, especially at Yorktown.
Robert Morris: Chief treasury official who financed the war efforts.
Judith Sargent Murray & Abigail Adams: Early advocates for women's rights and education.
James Madison: Key figure in drafting the Virginia Plan and the Constitution.
John Adams: Advocated for conservative counterweights to direct democracy in state constitutions.

Important Dates

1776: Declaration of Independence; Battles of Long Island, Trenton, Princeton.
1777: Battle of Saratoga (turning point); Articles of Confederation adopted.
1778: Franco-American alliance solidified.
1781: Battle of Yorktown (decisive victory); Cornwallis's surrender.
1783: Treaty of Paris (ends war, recognizes American independence).
1786–1787: Shays's Rebellion.
1787: Philadelphia Convention (drafts Constitution); Northwest Ordinance enacted.
1788–1789: Constitution ratified; new government begins operation.

Key Events

Battle of Saratoga: Decisive American victory leading to French alliance.
Valley Forge: Winter encampment where Continental Army was reformed.
Franco-American Alliance: Provided critical military and financial support to Patriots.
Battle of Yorktown: Final major battle, leading to British surrender.
Articles of Confederation: First U.S. government framework, noted for its weaknesses.
Northwest Ordinance: Organized western territories, banned slavery, created path to statehood.
Shays's Rebellion: Highlighted weaknesses of the Articles, spurred calls for constitutional reform.
Philadelphia Convention: Created the U.S. Constitution, addressing representation (Great Compromise) and slavery (Three-Fifths Compromise).
Ratification of the Constitution: Established a stronger federal government, with the promise of a Bill of Rights to address Antifederalist concerns.